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# sqlglot.generator

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       1from __future__ import annotations
       2
       3import logging
       4import re
       5import typing as t
       6from collections import defaultdict
       7from functools import reduce
       8
       9from sqlglot import exp
      10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
      11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
      12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
      13from sqlglot.time import format_time
      14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
      15
      16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
      17    from sqlglot._typing import E
      18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
      19
      20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
      21
      22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
      23
      24
      25class _Generator(type):
      26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
      27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
      28
      29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
      30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
      31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
      32
      33        return klass
      34
      35
      36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      37    """
      38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      39
      40    Args:
      41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      42            Default: False.
      43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      45            True or 'always': Always quote.
      46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      48            Default: False.
      49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      51            Default: 2.
      52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      54            Default: 2.
      55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      58            False: Disables function name normalization.
      59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
      61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
      62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
      63            Default: 3
      64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
      65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
      66            Default: False
      67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
      68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
      69            line length.
      70            Default: 80
      71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
      72            Default: True
      73    """
      74
      75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
      76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
      77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
      78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
      79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
      82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
      83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
      85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
      88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      90        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
      91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      92        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      93        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      94        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      95        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
      96        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
      97        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
      98        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
      99        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
     100        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
     101        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     102        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     103        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     104        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     105        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     106        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
     107            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
     108        ),
     109        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
     110            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
     111        ),
     112        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     113        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     114        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     115        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     116        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     117        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     118        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     119        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     120        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     121        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     122        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     123        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     124        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     125        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     126        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     127        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     128        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     129        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     130        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     131        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     132        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     133        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     134        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     135        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     136        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     137        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     138        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     139        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     140        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
     141        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     142        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     143        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     144        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     145        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     146        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     147        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     148        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     149        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     150        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     151        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     152    }
     153
     154    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     155    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
     156    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     157
     158    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     159    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     160    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     161
     162    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     163    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     164
     165    # Always do union distinct or union all
     166    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
     167
     168    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     169    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     170
     171    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     172    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     173
     174    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     175    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     176
     177    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     178    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     179
     180    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     181    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     182
     183    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     184    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     185
     186    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     187    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     188
     189    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     190    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     191
     192    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     193    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     194
     195    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     196    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     197
     198    # Whether join hints should be generated
     199    JOIN_HINTS = True
     200
     201    # Whether table hints should be generated
     202    TABLE_HINTS = True
     203
     204    # Whether query hints should be generated
     205    QUERY_HINTS = True
     206
     207    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     208    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     209
     210    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     211    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     212
     213    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     214    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     215
     216    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     217    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     218
     219    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     220    RETURNING_END = True
     221
     222    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
     223    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
     224
     225    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     226    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     227
     228    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     229    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     230
     231    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     232    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     233
     234    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     235    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     236
     237    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     238    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     239    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     240    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     241
     242    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     243    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     244
     245    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     246    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     247
     248    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     249    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     250
     251    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     252    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     253
     254    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     255    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     256
     257    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     258    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     259
     260    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     261    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     262
     263    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     264    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     265
     266    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     267    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     268
     269    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     270    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     271
     272    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     273    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     274
     275    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     276    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     277
     278    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     279    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     280
     281    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     282    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     283
     284    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     285    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     286
     287    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     288    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     289
     290    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     291    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     292
     293    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     294    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     295
     296    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     297    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     298
     299    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     300    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     301
     302    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     303    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     304
     305    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     306    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     307
     308    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     309    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     310
     311    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     312    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     313
     314    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     315    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     316
     317    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     318    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     319    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     320
     321    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     322    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     323
     324    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     325    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     326
     327    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     328    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     329
     330    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     331    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     332
     333    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     334    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     335
     336    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     337    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     338
     339    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
     340    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     341    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
     342    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
     343
     344    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
     345    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
     346
     347    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
     348    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
     349
     350    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
     351    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
     352
     353    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
     354    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
     355
     356    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
     357    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
     358
     359    # The HEX function name
     360    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
     361
     362    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     363        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     364        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     365        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     366        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     367        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     368        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     369        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     370        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     371        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     372        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
     373    }
     374
     375    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     376        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     377        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     378        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     379        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     380        "DAYS": "DAY",
     381        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     382        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     383        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     384        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     385    }
     386
     387    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     388        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     389        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     390        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     391        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     392        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     393            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     394            if e.args.get("windows")
     395            else ""
     396        ),
     397    }
     398
     399    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     400
     401    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     402
     403    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     404    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     405
     406    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     407        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     408        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     409        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     410        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     411        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     412        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     413        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     414        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     415        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     416        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     417        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     418        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     419        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     420        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     421        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     422        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     423        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     424        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     425        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     426        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     427        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     428        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     429        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     430        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     431        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     432        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     433        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     434        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     435        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     436        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     437        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     438        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     439        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     440        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     441        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     442        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     443        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     444        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     445        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     446        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     447        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     448        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     449        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     450        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     451        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     452        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     453        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     454        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     455        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     456        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     457        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     458        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     459        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     460        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     461        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     462        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     463        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     464        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     465        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     466        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     467        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     468        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     469        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     470        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     471        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     472        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     473        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     474        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     475        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     476        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     477        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     478        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     479        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     480        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     481        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     482        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     483        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     484    }
     485
     486    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     487    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     488
     489    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     490    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     491        exp.Create,
     492        exp.Delete,
     493        exp.Drop,
     494        exp.From,
     495        exp.Insert,
     496        exp.Join,
     497        exp.Select,
     498        exp.Union,
     499        exp.Update,
     500        exp.Where,
     501        exp.With,
     502    )
     503
     504    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     505    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     506        exp.Binary,
     507        exp.Union,
     508    )
     509
     510    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     511    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     512        exp.Column,
     513        exp.Literal,
     514        exp.Neg,
     515        exp.Paren,
     516    )
     517
     518    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     519        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     520        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     521        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     522        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     523    }
     524
     525    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     526    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     527
     528    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     529
     530    __slots__ = (
     531        "pretty",
     532        "identify",
     533        "normalize",
     534        "pad",
     535        "_indent",
     536        "normalize_functions",
     537        "unsupported_level",
     538        "max_unsupported",
     539        "leading_comma",
     540        "max_text_width",
     541        "comments",
     542        "dialect",
     543        "unsupported_messages",
     544        "_escaped_quote_end",
     545        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     546        "_next_name",
     547    )
     548
     549    def __init__(
     550        self,
     551        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     552        identify: str | bool = False,
     553        normalize: bool = False,
     554        pad: int = 2,
     555        indent: int = 2,
     556        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     557        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     558        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     559        leading_comma: bool = False,
     560        max_text_width: int = 80,
     561        comments: bool = True,
     562        dialect: DialectType = None,
     563    ):
     564        import sqlglot
     565        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     566
     567        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     568        self.identify = identify
     569        self.normalize = normalize
     570        self.pad = pad
     571        self._indent = indent
     572        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     573        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     574        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     575        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     576        self.comments = comments
     577        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     578
     579        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     580        self.normalize_functions = (
     581            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     582        )
     583
     584        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     585        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     586            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     587        )
     588        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
     589            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     590        )
     591
     592        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
     593
     594    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     595        """
     596        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     597
     598        Args:
     599            expression: The syntax tree.
     600            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     601                it is safer to copy.
     602
     603        Returns:
     604            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     605        """
     606        if copy:
     607            expression = expression.copy()
     608
     609        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     610
     611        self.unsupported_messages = []
     612        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     613
     614        if self.pretty:
     615            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     616
     617        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     618            return sql
     619
     620        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     621            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     622                logger.warning(msg)
     623        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     624            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     625
     626        return sql
     627
     628    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     629        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     630        if (
     631            not expression.parent
     632            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     633            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     634        ):
     635            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     636
     637            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     638
     639        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     640            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     641
     642            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     643
     644        return expression
     645
     646    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     647        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     648            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     649        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     650
     651    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     652        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     653
     654    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     655        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     656
     657    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     658        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     659        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     660        return comment
     661
     662    def maybe_comment(
     663        self,
     664        sql: str,
     665        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     666        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     667        separated: bool = False,
     668    ) -> str:
     669        comments = (
     670            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     671            if self.comments
     672            else None
     673        )
     674
     675        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     676            return sql
     677
     678        comments_sql = " ".join(
     679            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     680        )
     681
     682        if not comments_sql:
     683            return sql
     684
     685        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     686
     687        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     688            return (
     689                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     690                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     691                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     692            )
     693
     694        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     695
     696    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     697        this_sql = (
     698            self.sql(expression)
     699            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     700            else self.sql(expression, "this")
     701        )
     702        if not this_sql:
     703            return "()"
     704
     705        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
     706        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     707
     708    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     709        original = self.identify
     710        self.identify = False
     711        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     712        self.identify = original
     713        return result
     714
     715    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     716        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     717            return name.upper()
     718        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     719            return name.lower()
     720        return name
     721
     722    def indent(
     723        self,
     724        sql: str,
     725        level: int = 0,
     726        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     727        skip_first: bool = False,
     728        skip_last: bool = False,
     729    ) -> str:
     730        if not self.pretty or not sql:
     731            return sql
     732
     733        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     734        lines = sql.split("\n")
     735
     736        return "\n".join(
     737            (
     738                line
     739                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     740                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     741            )
     742            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     743        )
     744
     745    def sql(
     746        self,
     747        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     748        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     749        comment: bool = True,
     750    ) -> str:
     751        if not expression:
     752            return ""
     753
     754        if isinstance(expression, str):
     755            return expression
     756
     757        if key:
     758            value = expression.args.get(key)
     759            if value:
     760                return self.sql(value)
     761            return ""
     762
     763        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     764
     765        if callable(transform):
     766            sql = transform(self, expression)
     767        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     768            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     769
     770            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     771                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     772            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     773                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     774            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     775                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     776            else:
     777                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     778        else:
     779            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     780
     781        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     782
     783    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     784        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     785        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     786        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     787
     788    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     789        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     790        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     791        options = expression.args.get("options")
     792        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     793        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     794        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     795        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     796        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     797
     798    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     799        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     800            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     801        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     802        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     803
     804    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     805        return ".".join(
     806            self.sql(part)
     807            for part in (
     808                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     809                expression.args.get("db"),
     810                expression.args.get("table"),
     811                expression.args.get("this"),
     812            )
     813            if part
     814        )
     815
     816    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     817        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     818
     819        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
     820            join_mark = ""
     821            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     822
     823        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     824
     825    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     827        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     828        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     829        return f"{position}{this}"
     830
     831    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     832        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     833        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     834        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     835        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     836        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     837        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     838        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     839        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     840
     841        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     842            kind = ""
     843
     844        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     845
     846    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     848        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     849        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     850
     851    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     853        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     854            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     855        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     856            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     857        else:
     858            persisted = ""
     859        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     860
     861    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     862        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     863
     864    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     865        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     866            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     867        else:
     868            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     869
     870        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     871
     872    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     873        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     874    ) -> str:
     875        this = ""
     876        if expression.this is not None:
     877            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     878            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     879
     880        start = expression.args.get("start")
     881        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     882        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     883        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     884        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     885        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     886        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     887        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     888        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     889        cycle_sql = ""
     890
     891        if cycle is not None:
     892            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     893            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     894
     895        sequence_opts = ""
     896        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     897            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     898            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     899
     900        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     901        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
     902
     903        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
     904
     905    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
     906        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
     907    ) -> str:
     908        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
     909        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
     910        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
     911
     912    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
     913        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
     914    ) -> str:
     915        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
     916
     917    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
     918        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
     919
     920    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
     921        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     922
     923    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
     924        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
     925        if desc is not None:
     926            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
     927        return "PRIMARY KEY"
     928
     929    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
     930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     931        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     932        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
     933        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
     934        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
     935        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
     936        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
     937
     938    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
     939        return self.sql(expression, "this")
     940
     941    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
     942        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     943        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
     944        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
     945
     946        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
     947
     948        properties_sql = ""
     949        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
     950            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
     951        ):
     952            properties_sql = self.sql(
     953                exp.Properties(
     954                    expressions=[
     955                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
     956                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
     957                    ]
     958                )
     959            )
     960
     961        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
     962        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
     963
     964        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     965        if expression_sql:
     966            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
     967
     968            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
     969                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
     970                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
     971                        exp.Properties(
     972                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
     973                        ),
     974                        wrapped=False,
     975                    )
     976                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
     977                else:
     978                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
     979
     980        postindex_props_sql = ""
     981        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
     982            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
     983                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
     984                wrapped=False,
     985                prefix=" ",
     986            )
     987
     988        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
     989        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
     990        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
     991
     992        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
     993        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
     994
     995        postcreate_props_sql = ""
     996        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
     997            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
     998                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
     999                sep=" ",
    1000                prefix=" ",
    1001                wrapped=False,
    1002            )
    1003
    1004        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1005
    1006        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1007        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1008            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1009                exp.Properties(
    1010                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1011                ),
    1012                sep=" ",
    1013                prefix=" ",
    1014                wrapped=False,
    1015            )
    1016
    1017        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1018        no_schema_binding = (
    1019            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1020        )
    1021
    1022        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1023        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1024
    1025        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1026        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1027
    1028    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1029        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1030        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1031        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1032        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1033        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1034        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1035        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1036        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1037        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1038        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1039
    1040        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1041        if cache is None:
    1042            cache_str = ""
    1043        elif cache is True:
    1044            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1045        else:
    1046            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1047
    1048        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1049        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1050
    1051        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1052
    1053    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1054        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1055        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1056        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1057        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1058
    1059    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1060        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1061        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1062        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1063
    1064    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1065        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1066        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1067
    1068    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1069        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1070        if with_:
    1071            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1072        return sql
    1073
    1074    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1075        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1076        recursive = (
    1077            "RECURSIVE "
    1078            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1079            else ""
    1080        )
    1081
    1082        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
    1083
    1084    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1085        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1086
    1087        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1088        if materialized is False:
    1089            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1090        elif materialized:
    1091            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1092
    1093        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1094
    1095    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1096        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1097        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1098        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1099
    1100        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1101            columns = ""
    1102            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1103
    1104        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1105            alias = self._next_name()
    1106
    1107        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1108
    1109    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1111        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1112            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1113        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1114
    1115    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1116        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1117        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1118            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1119        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1120
    1121    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1122        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1123        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1124            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1125        return this
    1126
    1127    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1129        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1130
    1131        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1132            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
    1133            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
    1134
    1135        if escape:
    1136            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1137        else:
    1138            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1139
    1140        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
    1141        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1142
    1143    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1144        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1145        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1146
    1147    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1148        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1149        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1150        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1151        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1152
    1153    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1154        type_value = expression.this
    1155
    1156        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1157            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1158        else:
    1159            type_sql = (
    1160                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1161                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1162                else type_value
    1163            )
    1164
    1165        nested = ""
    1166        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1167        values = ""
    1168
    1169        if interior:
    1170            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1171                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1172                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1173                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1174                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1175                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1176            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1177                nested = f" {interior}"
    1178            else:
    1179                nested = f"({interior})"
    1180
    1181        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1182        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1183            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1184            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1185        ):
    1186            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1187
    1188        return type_sql
    1189
    1190    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1191        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1192        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1193        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1194        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1195
    1196    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1197        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1198        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1199        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1200        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1201        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1202        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1203        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1204        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1205        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1206        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1207            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1208        else:
    1209            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
    1210        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1211
    1212    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1214        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1215        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1216        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1217        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1218        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1219        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1220        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1221        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1222        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1223        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1224        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1225        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1226
    1227    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1228        return self.set_operations(expression)
    1229
    1230    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1231        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1232
    1233    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1234        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1235        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1236        count = expression.args.get("count")
    1237        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1238        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1239            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1240        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1241        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1242
    1243    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1244        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1245            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1246            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1247            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1248
    1249        agg = expression.this
    1250        agg_arg = agg.this
    1251        cond = expression.expression.this
    1252        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1253        return self.sql(agg)
    1254
    1255    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1256        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1257            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1258            return ""
    1259
    1260        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1261
    1262    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1263        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1264        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1265        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1266        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1267        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1268        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1269        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1270        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1271        if include:
    1272            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1273        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1274        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1275        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1276        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1277
    1278        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
    1279
    1280    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1281        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1282        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1283        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1284        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1285        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1286        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1287        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1288
    1289        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1290
    1291        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1292        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1293
    1294    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1295        text = expression.name
    1296        lower = text.lower()
    1297        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1298        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1299        if (
    1300            expression.quoted
    1301            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1302            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1303            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1304        ):
    1305            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
    1306        return text
    1307
    1308    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1309        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1310        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1311            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1312
    1313        return text
    1314
    1315    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1316        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1317        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1318            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1319        return text
    1320
    1321    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1322        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1323        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1324        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1325        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1326        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1327
    1328    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1329        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1330        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1331
    1332    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1333        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1334
    1335    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1336        root_properties = []
    1337        with_properties = []
    1338
    1339        for p in expression.expressions:
    1340            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1341            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1342                with_properties.append(p)
    1343            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1344                root_properties.append(p)
    1345
    1346        return self.root_properties(
    1347            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
    1348        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1349
    1350    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1351        if properties.expressions:
    1352            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1353        return ""
    1354
    1355    def properties(
    1356        self,
    1357        properties: exp.Properties,
    1358        prefix: str = "",
    1359        sep: str = ", ",
    1360        suffix: str = "",
    1361        wrapped: bool = True,
    1362    ) -> str:
    1363        if properties.expressions:
    1364            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1365            if expressions:
    1366                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1367                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1368        return ""
    1369
    1370    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1371        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
    1372
    1373    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1374        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1375        for p in properties.expressions:
    1376            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1377            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1378                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1379            else:
    1380                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1381
    1382        return properties_locs
    1383
    1384    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1385        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1386            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1387        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1388
    1389    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1390        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1391        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1392            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1393
    1394        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1395        if not property_name:
    1396            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1397
    1398        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1399
    1400    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1401        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1402            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1403            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1404
    1405            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1406            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1407                like = f"({like})"
    1408
    1409            return like
    1410
    1411        if expression.expressions:
    1412            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1413
    1414        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1415        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1416
    1417    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1418        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1419        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1420        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1421
    1422    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1423        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1424        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1425        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1426        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1427        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1428        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1429        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1430
    1431    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1432        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1433        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1434        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1435
    1436    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1437        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1438            property = "DEFAULT"
    1439        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1440            property = "ON"
    1441        else:
    1442            property = "OFF"
    1443        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1444
    1445    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1446        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1447            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1448        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1449            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1450
    1451        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1452        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1453
    1454    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1455        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1456        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1457        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1458        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1459            if default:
    1460                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1461            elif minimum:
    1462                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1463            else:
    1464                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1465            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1466        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1467        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1468        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1469
    1470    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1471        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1472        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1473        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1474        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1475        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1476
    1477        if autotemp is not None:
    1478            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1479        elif always:
    1480            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1481        elif default:
    1482            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1483        elif manual:
    1484            prop = "MANUAL"
    1485        elif never:
    1486            prop = "NEVER"
    1487        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1488
    1489    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1490        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1491        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1492        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1493        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1494        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1495        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1496        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1497
    1498    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1499        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1500            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1501        if expression.this:
    1502            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1503            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1504            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1505
    1506        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1507        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1508        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1509
    1510    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1512
    1513        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1514        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1515            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1516        else:
    1517            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1518
    1519        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1520
    1521    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1522        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1523        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1524        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1525        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1526        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1527        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1528        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1529
    1530    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1531        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1532        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1533        statistics_sql = ""
    1534        if statistics is not None:
    1535            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1536        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1537
    1538    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1539        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
    1540
    1541        if expression.this:
    1542            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1543            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
    1544
    1545            if expression.expression:
    1546                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1547                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
    1548
    1549            sql = f"{sql})"
    1550
    1551        return f"{sql})"
    1552
    1553    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1554        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1555        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1556
    1557        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1558            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1559        else:
    1560            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1561
    1562        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1563        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1564        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1565        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1566        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1567        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1568        if is_function:
    1569            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1570        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1571
    1572        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1573        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1574        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1575        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1576        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1577        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1578        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1579        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1580
    1581        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1582            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1583        else:
    1584            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1585
    1586        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
    1587        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1588
    1589    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1590        return self.set_operations(expression)
    1591
    1592    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1593        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1594
    1595    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1596        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1597
    1598    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1599        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1600        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1602        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1603        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1604
    1605    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1606        return expression.name
    1607
    1608    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1609        return expression.name
    1610
    1611    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1612        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1613
    1614        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1615        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1616
    1617        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1618        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1619        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1620
    1621        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1622        if expressions:
    1623            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1624            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1625
    1626        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
    1627
    1628    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1629        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1630
    1631    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1632        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1633        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1634        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1635        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1636        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1637        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1638        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1639        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1640        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1641        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1642        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1643        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1644        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1645
    1646    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1647        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1648
    1649    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1650        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1651        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1652        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1653        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1654
    1655    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1656        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1657        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1658        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1659        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1660
    1661    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1662        return ".".join(
    1663            self.sql(part)
    1664            for part in (
    1665                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1666                expression.args.get("db"),
    1667                expression.args.get("this"),
    1668            )
    1669            if part is not None
    1670        )
    1671
    1672    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1673        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1674        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1675        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1676        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1677        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1678        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1679        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1680        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1681        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1682        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1683        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    1684        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    1685        joins = self.indent(
    1686            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1687        )
    1688        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1689
    1690        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1691        if file_format:
    1692            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1693            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1694            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1695
    1696        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1697        if ordinality:
    1698            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1699            alias = ""
    1700
    1701        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1702        if when:
    1703            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1704
    1705        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1706
    1707    def tablesample_sql(
    1708        self,
    1709        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1710        sep: str = " AS ",
    1711        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1712    ) -> str:
    1713        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
    1714            table = expression.this.copy()
    1715            table.set("alias", None)
    1716            this = self.sql(table)
    1717            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
    1718        else:
    1719            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1720            alias = ""
    1721
    1722        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1723        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1724        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1725        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1726        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1727        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1728        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1729        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1730        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1731
    1732        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1733        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1734            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1735
    1736        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1737        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1738            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1739
    1740        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1741        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1742            expr = f"({expr})"
    1743
    1744        return (
    1745            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
    1746        )
    1747
    1748    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1750
    1751        if expression.this:
    1752            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1753            if not expressions:
    1754                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1755
    1756            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1757            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1758            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1759            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1760            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1761
    1762        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1763        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1764        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    1765        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1766        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1767        if include_nulls is not None:
    1768            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1769        else:
    1770            nulls = ""
    1771        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
    1772
    1773    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1774        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1775        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1776        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1777        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    1778
    1779    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1780        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1781
    1782    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1783        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1784        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1785        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1786        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1787        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1788        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1789        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1790        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1791            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1792        else:
    1793            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1794        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1795        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1796
    1797    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    1798        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    1799
    1800        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    1801        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    1802            args = self.expressions(expression)
    1803            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1804            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    1805            values = (
    1806                f"({values})"
    1807                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
    1808                else values
    1809            )
    1810            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    1811
    1812        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    1813        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    1814        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    1815
    1816        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    1817
    1818        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    1819            row = tup.expressions
    1820
    1821            if i == 0 and column_names:
    1822                row = [
    1823                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    1824                ]
    1825
    1826            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    1827
    1828        if self.pretty:
    1829            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    1830            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    1831            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    1832            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    1833            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    1834
    1835        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    1836        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    1837        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    1838
    1839    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    1840        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1841
    1842    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    1843        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1844        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    1845        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1846
    1847    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    1848        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1849
    1850    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    1851        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    1852        if group_by_all is True:
    1853            modifier = " ALL"
    1854        elif group_by_all is False:
    1855            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    1856        else:
    1857            modifier = ""
    1858
    1859        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    1860
    1861        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
    1862        grouping_sets = (
    1863            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
    1864        )
    1865
    1866        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
    1867        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
    1868            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
    1869        else:
    1870            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
    1871            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
    1872
    1873        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
    1874        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
    1875            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
    1876        else:
    1877            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
    1878            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
    1879
    1880        groupings = csv(
    1881            grouping_sets,
    1882            cube_sql,
    1883            rollup_sql,
    1884            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    1885            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    1886        )
    1887
    1888        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
    1889            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    1890
    1891        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    1892
    1893    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    1894        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1895        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    1896
    1897    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    1898        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1899        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    1900        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    1901        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    1902        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    1903        return start + connect
    1904
    1905    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    1906        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1907
    1908    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    1909        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    1910            side = None
    1911        else:
    1912            side = expression.side
    1913
    1914        op_sql = " ".join(
    1915            op
    1916            for op in (
    1917                expression.method,
    1918                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    1919                side,
    1920                expression.kind,
    1921                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    1922            )
    1923            if op
    1924        )
    1925        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    1926        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    1927        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1928        using = expression.args.get("using")
    1929
    1930        if not on_sql and using:
    1931            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    1932
    1933        this = expression.this
    1934        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    1935
    1936        if on_sql:
    1937            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    1938            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    1939            if using:
    1940                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    1941            else:
    1942                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    1943        elif not op_sql:
    1944            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    1945                return f" {this_sql}"
    1946
    1947            return f", {this_sql}"
    1948
    1949        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    1950        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
    1951
    1952    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    1953        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1954        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    1955        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1956
    1957    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1958        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    1959
    1960        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    1961        if cross_apply is True:
    1962            op = "INNER JOIN "
    1963        elif cross_apply is False:
    1964            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    1965        else:
    1966            op = ""
    1967
    1968        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    1969
    1970    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1972
    1973        if expression.args.get("view"):
    1974            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    1975            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    1976            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    1977            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    1978            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    1979            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    1980
    1981        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1982        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1983        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    1984
    1985    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    1986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1987
    1988        args = [
    1989            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    1990            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    1991            if e
    1992        ]
    1993
    1994        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    1995        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    1996        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1997        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1998
    1999        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    2000
    2001    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2002        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2003        value = expression.expression
    2004        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2005        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2006        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2007        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    2008
    2009    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2010        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2011        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2013        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2014        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2015        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2016        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2017        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    2018
    2019    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2020        expressions = (
    2021            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    2022        )
    2023        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2024        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    2025
    2026    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2027        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2028
    2029    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2030        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2031            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2032            return ""
    2033
    2034        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2035        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2036        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2037        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2038
    2039        if wait is not None:
    2040            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2041                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2042            else:
    2043                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2044
    2045        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2046
    2047    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2048        text = expression.this or ""
    2049        if expression.is_string:
    2050            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2051        return text
    2052
    2053    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2054        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2055            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2056            text = "".join(
    2057                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2058            )
    2059
    2060        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2061            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2062        )
    2063
    2064    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2065        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2066        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2067        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2068        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2069        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2070        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2071        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2072        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2073        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2074        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2075        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2076
    2077    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2078        return "NULL"
    2079
    2080    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2081        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2082
    2083    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2085        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2086        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2087        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2088        interpolated_values = [
    2089            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2090            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2091        ]
    2092        interpolate = (
    2093            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2094        )
    2095        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
    2096
    2097    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2098        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2099        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2100        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2101        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2102        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2103        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2104        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
    2105
    2106    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2107        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2108
    2109    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2110        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2111
    2112    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2113        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2114
    2115    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2116        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2117        asc = not desc
    2118
    2119        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2120        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2121        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2122        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2123        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2124
    2125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2126
    2127        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2128        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2129        if nulls_first and (
    2130            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2131        ):
    2132            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2133        elif (
    2134            nulls_last
    2135            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2136            and not nulls_are_last
    2137        ):
    2138            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2139
    2140        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2141        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2142            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2143            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2144                self.unsupported(
    2145                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2146                )
    2147                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2148            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2149                if expression.this.is_int:
    2150                    self.unsupported(
    2151                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2152                    )
    2153                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2154                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2155                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2156                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2157
    2158        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2159        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2160
    2161        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2162
    2163    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2164        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2165        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2166
    2167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2168
    2169        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2170
    2171    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2172        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2173        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2174        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2175        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2176        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2177        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2178        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2179        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2180        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2181        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2182        definition_sqls = [
    2183            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2184            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2185        ]
    2186        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2187        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2188        body = "".join(
    2189            (
    2190                partition,
    2191                order,
    2192                measures,
    2193                rows,
    2194                after,
    2195                pattern,
    2196                define,
    2197            )
    2198        )
    2199        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2200        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2201        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2202
    2203    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2204        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2205
    2206        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2207            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2208        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2209            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2210
    2211        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2212        if options:
    2213            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
    2214
    2215        return csv(
    2216            *sqls,
    2217            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2218            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2219            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2220            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2221            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2222            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2223            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2224            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2225            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2226            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2227            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2228            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2229            options,
    2230            sep="",
    2231        )
    2232
    2233    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2234        return ""
    2235
    2236    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2237        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2238    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2239        return [
    2240            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2241            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2242        ]
    2243
    2244    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2245        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2246        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2247        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2248
    2249    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2250        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2251        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2252            into.pop()
    2253
    2254        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2255        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2256        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2257        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2258
    2259        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2260        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2261            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2262            limit.pop()
    2263        else:
    2264            top = ""
    2265
    2266        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2267
    2268        if kind:
    2269            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2270                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2271            else:
    2272                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2273                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2274                        sqls=[
    2275                            self.sql(
    2276                                exp.Struct(
    2277                                    expressions=[
    2278                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2279                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2280                                        else e
    2281                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2282                                    ]
    2283                                )
    2284                            )
    2285                        ]
    2286                    )
    2287                kind = ""
    2288
    2289        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2290        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2291        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2292        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2293        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2294            expression,
    2295            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2296            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2297            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2298        )
    2299
    2300        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2301
    2302        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2303            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2304                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2305            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2306                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2307            else:
    2308                table_kind = ""
    2309            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2310
    2311        return sql
    2312
    2313    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2315        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2316        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2317
    2318    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2319        if expression.expressions:
    2320            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2321        return ""
    2322
    2323    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2324        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2325        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2326        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2327        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2328        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2329        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2330        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
    2331
    2332    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2334        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2335
    2336    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2337        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2338        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2339        if kind:
    2340            kind = f"{kind}."
    2341        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2342
    2343    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2344        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2345
    2346    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2347        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2348        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2349
    2350        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    2351        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    2352
    2353        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2354        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2355
    2356    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2357        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2358        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2359
    2360    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2361        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
    2362            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2363            order = expression.args.get("order")
    2364
    2365            if limit or order:
    2366                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    2367
    2368                if limit:
    2369                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    2370                if order:
    2371                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    2372                return self.sql(select)
    2373
    2374        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2375        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    2376
    2377        while stack:
    2378            node = stack.pop()
    2379
    2380            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
    2381                stack.append(node.expression)
    2382                stack.append(
    2383                    self.maybe_comment(
    2384                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
    2385                        comments=node.comments,
    2386                        separated=True,
    2387                    )
    2388                )
    2389                stack.append(node.this)
    2390            else:
    2391                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    2392
    2393        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    2394        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    2395        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    2396
    2397    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2398        return self.set_operations(expression)
    2399
    2400    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2401        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
    2402        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
    2403        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    2404        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
    2405
    2406    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2407        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2408
    2409        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2410        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2411
    2412        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2413            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2414                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2415
    2416        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2417            columns = alias.columns
    2418            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2419        else:
    2420            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2421
    2422        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2423        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2424            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2425        else:
    2426            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2427                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2428            elif offset:
    2429                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2430            else:
    2431                suffix = alias
    2432
    2433        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2434
    2435    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2436        return ""
    2437
    2438    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2439        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2440        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2441
    2442    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2444        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2445        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2446        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2447        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2448        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2449        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2450
    2451        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2452
    2453        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2454        if first is None:
    2455            first = ""
    2456        else:
    2457            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2458
    2459        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2460            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2461
    2462        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2463        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2464
    2465    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2466        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2467        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2468
    2469    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2470        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2471        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2472        end = (
    2473            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2474            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2475        )
    2476        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2477
    2478    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2480        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2481        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2482
    2483    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2485        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2486        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2487        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2488
    2489    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2490        return apply_index_offset(
    2491            expression.this,
    2492            expression.expressions,
    2493            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2494        )
    2495
    2496    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2497        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2498        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2499        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2500
    2501    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2502        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2503
    2504    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2505        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2506        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2507            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2508                this = self.wrap(this)
    2509            return f"ANY{this}"
    2510        return f"ANY {this}"
    2511
    2512    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2513        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2514
    2515    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2517        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2518
    2519        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2520            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2521            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2522
    2523        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2524
    2525        if default:
    2526            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2527
    2528        statements.append("END")
    2529
    2530        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2531            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2532
    2533        return " ".join(statements)
    2534
    2535    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2537        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2538        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2539
    2540    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2541        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2542        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2543        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2544
    2545    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2546        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2547        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2548        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2549
    2550    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2551        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2552
    2553        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2554            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
    2555        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2556            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
    2557        else:
    2558            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
    2559
    2560    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2561        args = expression.expressions
    2562        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2563            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2564
    2565        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2566            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2567
    2568        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2569            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2570
    2571        return args
    2572
    2573    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2574        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2575
    2576        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2577        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2578            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2579
    2580        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2581
    2582    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2583        return self.func(
    2584            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2585        )
    2586
    2587    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2588        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2589        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2590
    2591    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2592        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2593        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2594        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2595        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2596        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2597        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2598        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2599        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2600
    2601    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2602        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2603        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2604        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2605        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2606
    2607    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2608        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2609
    2610    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2611        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2612        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2613        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2614
    2615    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2616        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2617
    2618    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2619        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2620        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2621
    2622    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2623        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2624            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2625            if not callable(transform):
    2626                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2627                return ""
    2628
    2629            return transform(self, expression)
    2630
    2631        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2632            return str(expression)
    2633
    2634        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2635            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2636            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2637        else:
    2638            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2639            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2640
    2641        return escaped
    2642
    2643    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2644        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2645
    2646    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2647        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2648        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2649
    2650        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2651        if unique_keys is not None:
    2652            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2653        else:
    2654            unique_keys = ""
    2655
    2656        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2657        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2658        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2659        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2660
    2661        return self.func(
    2662            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2663            *expression.expressions,
    2664            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2665        )
    2666
    2667    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2668        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2669
    2670    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2671        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2672        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2673        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2674        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2675        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2676        return self.func(
    2677            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2678        )
    2679
    2680    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2682        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2683        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2684        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2685        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2686        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2687        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2688        return self.func(
    2689            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2690            this,
    2691            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2692        )
    2693
    2694    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2695        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2696        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2697        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2698
    2699        if nested_schema:
    2700            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2701
    2702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2703        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2704        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2705        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2706
    2707    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2708        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2709
    2710    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2711        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2712        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2713        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2714        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2715        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2716        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2717        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2718        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2719        return self.func(
    2720            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2721        )
    2722
    2723    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2725        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2726        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2727        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2728        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2729        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2730
    2731    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2733        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2734        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2735        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2736        with_ = (
    2737            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2738            if expressions
    2739            else ""
    2740        )
    2741        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2742
    2743    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2744        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2745        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2746        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2747        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2748
    2749        if query:
    2750            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2751        elif unnest:
    2752            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2753        elif field:
    2754            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2755        else:
    2756            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2757
    2758        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    2759
    2760    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2761        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    2762
    2763    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2764        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2765        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2766            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2767        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2768
    2769        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2770            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2771            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2772
    2773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2774        if this:
    2775            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2776            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2777
    2778        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    2779
    2780    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2781        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2782
    2783    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2785        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2786        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2787        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2788        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2789        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    2790
    2791    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2792        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
    2793
    2794    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2795        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2796        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2797
    2798    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2799        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2800        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2801        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2802        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    2803
    2804    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2805        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2806
    2807    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    2808        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2809        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2810        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    2811
    2812    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    2813        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2814        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    2815
    2816        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2817            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    2818        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2819            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    2820
    2821        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    2822
    2823    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    2824        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2825
    2826    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2828        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2829        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    2830
    2831    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2833        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2834        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    2835
    2836    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    2837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2838        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2839        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    2840
    2841    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    2842        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    2843
    2844    def and_sql(
    2845        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2846    ) -> str:
    2847        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    2848
    2849    def or_sql(
    2850        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2851    ) -> str:
    2852        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    2853
    2854    def xor_sql(
    2855        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2856    ) -> str:
    2857        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    2858
    2859    def connector_sql(
    2860        self,
    2861        expression: exp.Connector,
    2862        op: str,
    2863        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    2864    ) -> str:
    2865        if stack is not None:
    2866            if expression.expressions:
    2867                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    2868            else:
    2869                stack.append(expression.right)
    2870                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    2871                    for comment in expression.comments:
    2872                        if comment:
    2873                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    2874                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    2875            return op
    2876
    2877        stack = [expression]
    2878        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2879        ops = set()
    2880
    2881        while stack:
    2882            node = stack.pop()
    2883            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    2884                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    2885            else:
    2886                sql = self.sql(node)
    2887                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    2888                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    2889                else:
    2890                    sqls.append(sql)
    2891
    2892        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    2893        return sep.join(sqls)
    2894
    2895    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    2896        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    2897
    2898    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    2899        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    2900
    2901    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    2902        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2903
    2904    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    2905        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    2906
    2907    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    2908        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    2909
    2910    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    2911        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    2912
    2913    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    2914        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2915        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    2916        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2917        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2918        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    2919        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    2920        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
    2921
    2922    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    2923        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2924        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    2925
    2926    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
    2927        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
    2928
    2929    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    2930        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    2931            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    2932        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    2933
    2934    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    2935        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    2936
    2937    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    2938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2939        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    2940        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    2941        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2942        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2943        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    2944
    2945    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    2946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2947        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    2948        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    2949        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    2950        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    2951        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    2952        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    2953        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    2954        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    2955
    2956    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    2957        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2958        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2959        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    2960        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    2961
    2962        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    2963            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2964
    2965        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    2966
    2967    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    2968        return "BEGIN"
    2969
    2970    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    2971        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    2972        if chain is not None:
    2973            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    2974
    2975        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    2976
    2977    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    2978        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    2979        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    2980        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    2981
    2982    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    2983        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2984
    2985        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    2986        if dtype:
    2987            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2988            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2989            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    2990            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    2991            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    2992
    2993        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2994        if default:
    2995            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    2996
    2997        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    2998        if comment:
    2999            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3000
    3001        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
    3002            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3003
    3004        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    3005
    3006    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3008        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3009            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3010        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
    3011
    3012    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3013        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3014        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3015        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3016        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3017        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
    3018
    3019    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    3020        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3021            # Remove db from tables
    3022            expression = expression.transform(
    3023                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3024            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
    3025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3026        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    3027
    3028    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3029        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3030        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3031        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3032        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    3033
    3034    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    3035        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3036
    3037        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    3038            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    3039        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    3040            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    3041        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    3042            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3043        else:
    3044            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3045
    3046        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3047        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3048        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3049        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3050        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3051        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3052        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
    3053
    3054    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    3055        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3056            return self.expressions(
    3057                expression,
    3058                key="actions",
    3059                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3060            )
    3061        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    3062
    3063    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3064        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3065        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3066        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3067
    3068    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3069        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3070
    3071    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3072        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3073
    3074        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3075            case = exp.case()
    3076            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3077                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3078            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3079
    3080        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3081
    3082        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3083        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3084        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3085
    3086    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3087        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3088
    3089    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3090        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3091
    3092    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3093        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3094        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3095        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3096        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3097
    3098    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3099        return self.sql(
    3100            exp.Cast(
    3101                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3102                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3103            )
    3104        )
    3105
    3106    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3107        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3108            return self.func(
    3109                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3110            )
    3111        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3112
    3113    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3114        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3115
    3116        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3117            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3118
    3119        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3120            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3121                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3122
    3123        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3124            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3125                return self.sql(
    3126                    exp.cast(
    3127                        l / r,
    3128                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3129                    )
    3130                )
    3131
    3132        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3133
    3134    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3135        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3136
    3137    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3138        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3139
    3140    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3141        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3142
    3143    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3144        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3145
    3146    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3147        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3148
    3149    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3150        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3151
    3152    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3153        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3154
    3155    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3156        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3157
    3158    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3159        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3160
    3161    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3162        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3163
    3164    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3165        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3166
    3167    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3168        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3169            return self.sql(
    3170                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3171            )
    3172        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3173
    3174    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3175        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3176
    3177    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3178        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3179
    3180    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3181        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3182
    3183    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3184        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3185
    3186    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3187        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3188
    3189    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3190        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3191
    3192    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3193        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3194
    3195    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3196        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3197
    3198    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3199        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3200
    3201    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3202        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3203
    3204    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3205        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3206
    3207    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3208        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3209
    3210    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3211        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3212
    3213    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3214        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3215            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3216            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3217
    3218        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
    3219
    3220    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3221        this = expression.this
    3222        expr = expression.expression
    3223
    3224        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3225            this, expr = expr, this
    3226        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3227            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3228                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3229
    3230            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3231
    3232        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3233
    3234    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3235        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3236        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3238        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3239        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3240
    3241    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3242        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
    3243        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3244
    3245    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3246        args = []
    3247
    3248        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3249            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3250
    3251            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3252                for value in arg_value:
    3253                    args.append(value)
    3254            elif arg_value is not None:
    3255                args.append(arg_value)
    3256
    3257        if self.normalize_functions:
    3258            name = expression.sql_name()
    3259        else:
    3260            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3261
    3262        return self.func(name, *args)
    3263
    3264    def func(
    3265        self,
    3266        name: str,
    3267        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3268        prefix: str = "(",
    3269        suffix: str = ")",
    3270    ) -> str:
    3271        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3272
    3273    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3274        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
    3275        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3276            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3277        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
    3278
    3279    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3280        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3281
    3282    def format_time(
    3283        self,
    3284        expression: exp.Expression,
    3285        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3286        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3287    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3288        return format_time(
    3289            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3290            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3291            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3292        )
    3293
    3294    def expressions(
    3295        self,
    3296        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3297        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3298        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3299        flat: bool = False,
    3300        indent: bool = True,
    3301        skip_first: bool = False,
    3302        skip_last: bool = False,
    3303        sep: str = ", ",
    3304        prefix: str = "",
    3305        dynamic: bool = False,
    3306        new_line: bool = False,
    3307    ) -> str:
    3308        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3309
    3310        if not expressions:
    3311            return ""
    3312
    3313        if flat:
    3314            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3315
    3316        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3317
    3318        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
    3319        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
    3320            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
    3321
    3322        result_sqls = []
    3323        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3324            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3325            if not sql:
    3326                continue
    3327
    3328            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3329
    3330            if self.pretty:
    3331                if self.leading_comma:
    3332                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3333                else:
    3334                    result_sqls.append(
    3335                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3336                    )
    3337            else:
    3338                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3339
    3340        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3341            if new_line:
    3342                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3343                result_sqls.append("")
    3344            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
    3345        else:
    3346            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3347        return (
    3348            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3349            if indent
    3350            else result_sql
    3351        )
    3352
    3353    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3354        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3355        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3356        if flat:
    3357            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3358        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3359
    3360    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3361        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3362        if not property_name:
    3363            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3364        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3365
    3366    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3367        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3368
    3369    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3370        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3371
    3372    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3374        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3375        expressions = (
    3376            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3377        )
    3378        return f"{this}{expressions}"
    3379
    3380    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3381        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3382        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3383        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3384
    3385    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3386        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3387
    3388    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3389        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3390        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3391        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3392        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3393
    3394        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3395        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3396            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3397            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3398            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3399            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3400        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3401            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3402                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3403            else:
    3404                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3405        else:
    3406            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3407        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3408
    3409    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3410        table = expression.this
    3411        table_alias = ""
    3412
    3413        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3414        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3415            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3416            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3417
    3418        this = self.sql(table)
    3419        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3420        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3421        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3422        sep = self.sep()
    3423
    3424        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3425            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
    3426        )
    3427
    3428    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3429        if expression.args.get("format"):
    3430            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
    3431
    3432        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3433
    3434    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3435        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3436            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3437            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3438
    3439        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3440        if not fmt:
    3441            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3442            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3443
    3444        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3445
    3446    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3448        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3449        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3450        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3451        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3452
    3453    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3454        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3455        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3456        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3457        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3458
    3459    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3460        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3461
    3462    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3463        return ""
    3464
    3465    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3466        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3467        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3468        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3469        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3470        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3471
    3472    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3473        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3474        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3475
    3476        if having:
    3477            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3478
    3479        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3480
    3481    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3482        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3483        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3484        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3485        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3486        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3487        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3488        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3489        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3490        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3491        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3492        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3493        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3494        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3495
    3496    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3497        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3498        if key_block_size:
    3499            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3500
    3501        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3502        if using:
    3503            return f"USING {using}"
    3504
    3505        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3506        if parser:
    3507            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3508
    3509        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3510        if comment:
    3511            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3512
    3513        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3514        if visible is not None:
    3515            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3516
    3517        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3518        if engine_attr:
    3519            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3520
    3521        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3522        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3523            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3524
    3525        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3526        return ""
    3527
    3528    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3529        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3530        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    3531
    3532    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3533        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3534        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3536        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3537        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3538        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3539        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3540        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3541        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3542        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3543        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    3544
    3545    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3546        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3547            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3548
    3549        case = exp.Case().when(
    3550            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3551            expression.args["true"],
    3552            copy=False,
    3553        )
    3554        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3555        if else_cond:
    3556            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3557
    3558        return self.sql(case)
    3559
    3560    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3562        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3563        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3564        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3565        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3566        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3567
    3568    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3569        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3570
    3571    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3572        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3573
    3574    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3575        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3576        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3577        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3578        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3579        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3580        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3581
    3582    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3584        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3585        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3586
    3587    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3588        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3589        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3590        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3591
    3592    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
    3593        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
    3594
    3595    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3596        arg = expression.this
    3597        if not arg.type:
    3598            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3599
    3600            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3601
    3602        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3603            return self.sql(arg)
    3604
    3605        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3606        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    3607
    3608    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3609        this = expression.this
    3610        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3611            return self.sql(this)
    3612
    3613        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    3614
    3615    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3616        this = expression.this
    3617        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3618            return self.sql(this)
    3619
    3620        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
    3621
    3622    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3623        this = expression.this
    3624        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3625
    3626        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3627            return self.sql(
    3628                exp.cast(
    3629                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3630                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3631                )
    3632            )
    3633
    3634        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3635            return self.sql(this)
    3636
    3637        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    3638
    3639    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3640        return self.sql(
    3641            exp.func(
    3642                "DATEDIFF",
    3643                expression.this,
    3644                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3645                "day",
    3646            )
    3647        )
    3648
    3649    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3650        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3651            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3652
    3653        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3654        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3655            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3656
    3657        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3658
    3659    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3660        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3661
    3662        return self.func(
    3663            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3664        )
    3665
    3666    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3667        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3668            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3669            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3670            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3671            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3672
    3673        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3674
    3675        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3676        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3677            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3678
    3679        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3680
    3681    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
    3682        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
    3683        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3684
    3685    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3686        expression.set(
    3687            "expressions",
    3688            [
    3689                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3690                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3691                else e
    3692                for e in expression.expressions
    3693            ],
    3694        )
    3695
    3696        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3697
    3698    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3699        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3700        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3701
    3702        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    3703
    3704    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3705        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3706        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3707
    3708        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3709
    3710        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3711        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3712
    3713        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3714        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3715
    3716        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3717        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3718
    3719        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3720        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3721
    3722        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    3723
    3724    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    3725    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    3726    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3727        to = expression.this
    3728        value = expression.expression
    3729        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3730        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3731        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3732
    3733        if not to or not value:
    3734            return ""
    3735
    3736        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3737        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3738            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3739
    3740        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3741        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    3742
    3743        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    3744        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    3745            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    3746
    3747            style_value = style.name
    3748            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    3749            if not converted_style:
    3750                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    3751
    3752            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    3753
    3754            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    3755                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    3756            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    3757                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    3758            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3759                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    3760            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    3761                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    3762
    3763        if not transformed:
    3764            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    3765
    3766        return self.sql(transformed)
    3767
    3768    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    3769        this = expression.this
    3770        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    3771            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3772            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    3773
    3774        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    3775            return f".{this}"
    3776
    3777        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3778        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
    3779
    3780    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    3781        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    3782        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    3783
    3784    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    3785        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    3786            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    3787
    3788            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    3789
    3790        return expression
    3791
    3792    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    3793        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    3794            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    3795            mods = sorted(
    3796                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    3797                key=lambda x: 0
    3798                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    3799                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    3800            )
    3801
    3802            if mods:
    3803                mod = mods[0]
    3804                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    3805                this.meta["inline"] = True
    3806                mod.this.replace(this)
    3807                return self.sql(expression.this)
    3808
    3809            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    3810
    3811            if agg_func:
    3812                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    3813
    3814        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    3815
    3816    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    3817        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    3818        if self.pretty:
    3819            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    3820        return string
    3821
    3822    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    3823        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3824
    3825        if option.upper() == "FILE_FORMAT":
    3826            values = self.expressions(expression, key="expression", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3827            return f"{option} = ({values})"
    3828
    3829        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3830
    3831        if not value:
    3832            return option
    3833
    3834        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    3835
    3836        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
    3837
    3838    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    3839        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    3840        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    3841            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    3842            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    3843            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    3844        else:
    3845            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    3846            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3847            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
    3848
    3849        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    3850
    3851        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3852        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    3853
    3854        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    3855        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    3856
    3857        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    3858        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    3859
    3860        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
    3861
    3862    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    3863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3864        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    3865
    3866        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    3867        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    3868        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    3869        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    3870
    3871        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    3872        params = self.expressions(
    3873            expression,
    3874            key="params",
    3875            sep=sep,
    3876            new_line=True,
    3877            skip_last=True,
    3878            skip_first=True,
    3879            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    3880        )
    3881
    3882        if params:
    3883            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    3884                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    3885            elif not self.pretty:
    3886                params = f" {params}"
    3887
    3888        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
    3889
    3890    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    3891        return ""

logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator: View Source

      37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      38    """
      39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      40
      41    Args:
      42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      43            Default: False.
      44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      46            True or 'always': Always quote.
      47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      49            Default: False.
      50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      52            Default: 2.
      53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      55            Default: 2.
      56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      59            False: Disables function name normalization.
      60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
      62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
      63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
      64            Default: 3
      65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
      66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
      67            Default: False
      68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
      69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
      70            line length.
      71            Default: 80
      72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
      73            Default: True
      74    """
      75
      76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
      77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
      78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
      79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
      80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
      83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
      84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
      86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
      89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
      92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      94        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      95        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      96        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
      97        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
      98        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
      99        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
     100        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
     101        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
     102        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     103        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     104        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     105        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     106        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     107        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
     108            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
     109        ),
     110        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
     111            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
     112        ),
     113        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     114        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     115        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     116        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     117        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     118        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     119        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     120        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     121        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     122        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     123        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     124        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     125        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     126        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     127        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     128        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     129        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     130        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     131        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     132        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     133        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     134        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     135        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     136        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     137        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     138        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     139        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     140        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     141        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
     142        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     143        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     144        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     145        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     146        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     147        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     148        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     149        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     150        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     151        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     152        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     153    }
     154
     155    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     156    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
     157    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     158
     159    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     160    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     161    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     162
     163    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     164    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     165
     166    # Always do union distinct or union all
     167    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
     168
     169    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     170    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     171
     172    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     173    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     174
     175    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     176    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     177
     178    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     179    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     180
     181    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     182    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     183
     184    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     185    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     186
     187    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     188    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     189
     190    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     191    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     192
     193    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     194    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     195
     196    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     197    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     198
     199    # Whether join hints should be generated
     200    JOIN_HINTS = True
     201
     202    # Whether table hints should be generated
     203    TABLE_HINTS = True
     204
     205    # Whether query hints should be generated
     206    QUERY_HINTS = True
     207
     208    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     209    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     210
     211    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     212    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     213
     214    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     215    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     216
     217    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     218    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     219
     220    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     221    RETURNING_END = True
     222
     223    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
     224    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
     225
     226    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     227    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     228
     229    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     230    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     231
     232    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     233    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     234
     235    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     236    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     237
     238    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     239    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     240    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     241    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     242
     243    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     244    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     245
     246    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     247    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     248
     249    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     250    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     251
     252    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     253    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     254
     255    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     256    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     257
     258    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     259    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     260
     261    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     262    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     263
     264    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     265    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     266
     267    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     268    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     269
     270    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     271    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     272
     273    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     274    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     275
     276    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     277    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     278
     279    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     280    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     281
     282    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     283    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     284
     285    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     286    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     287
     288    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     289    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     290
     291    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     292    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     293
     294    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     295    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     296
     297    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     298    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     299
     300    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     301    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     302
     303    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     304    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     305
     306    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     307    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     308
     309    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     310    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     311
     312    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     313    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     314
     315    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     316    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     317
     318    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     319    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     320    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     321
     322    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     323    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     324
     325    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     326    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     327
     328    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     329    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     330
     331    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     332    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     333
     334    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     335    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     336
     337    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     338    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     339
     340    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
     341    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     342    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
     343    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
     344
     345    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
     346    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
     347
     348    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
     349    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
     350
     351    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
     352    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
     353
     354    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
     355    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
     356
     357    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
     358    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
     359
     360    # The HEX function name
     361    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
     362
     363    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     364        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     365        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     366        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     367        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     368        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     369        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     370        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     371        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     372        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     373        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
     374    }
     375
     376    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     377        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     378        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     379        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     380        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     381        "DAYS": "DAY",
     382        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     383        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     384        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     385        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     386    }
     387
     388    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     389        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     390        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     391        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     392        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     393        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     394            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     395            if e.args.get("windows")
     396            else ""
     397        ),
     398    }
     399
     400    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     401
     402    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     403
     404    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     405    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     406
     407    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     408        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     409        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     410        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     411        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     412        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     413        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     414        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     415        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     416        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     417        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     418        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     419        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     420        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     421        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     422        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     423        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     424        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     425        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     426        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     427        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     428        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     429        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     430        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     431        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     432        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     433        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     434        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     435        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     436        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     437        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     438        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     439        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     440        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     441        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     442        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     443        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     444        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     445        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     446        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     447        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     448        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     449        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     450        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     451        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     452        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     453        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     454        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     455        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     456        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     457        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     458        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     459        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     460        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     461        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     462        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     463        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     464        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     465        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     466        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     467        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     468        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     469        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     470        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     471        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     472        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     473        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     474        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     475        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     476        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     477        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     478        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     479        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     480        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     481        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     482        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     483        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     484        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     485    }
     486
     487    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     488    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     489
     490    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     491    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     492        exp.Create,
     493        exp.Delete,
     494        exp.Drop,
     495        exp.From,
     496        exp.Insert,
     497        exp.Join,
     498        exp.Select,
     499        exp.Union,
     500        exp.Update,
     501        exp.Where,
     502        exp.With,
     503    )
     504
     505    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     506    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     507        exp.Binary,
     508        exp.Union,
     509    )
     510
     511    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     512    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     513        exp.Column,
     514        exp.Literal,
     515        exp.Neg,
     516        exp.Paren,
     517    )
     518
     519    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     520        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     521        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     522        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     523        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     524    }
     525
     526    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     527    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     528
     529    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     530
     531    __slots__ = (
     532        "pretty",
     533        "identify",
     534        "normalize",
     535        "pad",
     536        "_indent",
     537        "normalize_functions",
     538        "unsupported_level",
     539        "max_unsupported",
     540        "leading_comma",
     541        "max_text_width",
     542        "comments",
     543        "dialect",
     544        "unsupported_messages",
     545        "_escaped_quote_end",
     546        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     547        "_next_name",
     548    )
     549
     550    def __init__(
     551        self,
     552        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     553        identify: str | bool = False,
     554        normalize: bool = False,
     555        pad: int = 2,
     556        indent: int = 2,
     557        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     558        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     559        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     560        leading_comma: bool = False,
     561        max_text_width: int = 80,
     562        comments: bool = True,
     563        dialect: DialectType = None,
     564    ):
     565        import sqlglot
     566        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     567
     568        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     569        self.identify = identify
     570        self.normalize = normalize
     571        self.pad = pad
     572        self._indent = indent
     573        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     574        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     575        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     576        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     577        self.comments = comments
     578        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     579
     580        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     581        self.normalize_functions = (
     582            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     583        )
     584
     585        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     586        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     587            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     588        )
     589        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
     590            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     591        )
     592
     593        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
     594
     595    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     596        """
     597        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     598
     599        Args:
     600            expression: The syntax tree.
     601            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     602                it is safer to copy.
     603
     604        Returns:
     605            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     606        """
     607        if copy:
     608            expression = expression.copy()
     609
     610        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     611
     612        self.unsupported_messages = []
     613        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     614
     615        if self.pretty:
     616            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     617
     618        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     619            return sql
     620
     621        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     622            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     623                logger.warning(msg)
     624        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     625            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     626
     627        return sql
     628
     629    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     630        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     631        if (
     632            not expression.parent
     633            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     634            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     635        ):
     636            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     637
     638            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     639
     640        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     641            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     642
     643            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     644
     645        return expression
     646
     647    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     648        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     649            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     650        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     651
     652    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     653        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     654
     655    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     656        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     657
     658    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     659        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     660        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     661        return comment
     662
     663    def maybe_comment(
     664        self,
     665        sql: str,
     666        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     667        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     668        separated: bool = False,
     669    ) -> str:
     670        comments = (
     671            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     672            if self.comments
     673            else None
     674        )
     675
     676        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     677            return sql
     678
     679        comments_sql = " ".join(
     680            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     681        )
     682
     683        if not comments_sql:
     684            return sql
     685
     686        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     687
     688        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     689            return (
     690                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     691                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     692                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     693            )
     694
     695        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     696
     697    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     698        this_sql = (
     699            self.sql(expression)
     700            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     701            else self.sql(expression, "this")
     702        )
     703        if not this_sql:
     704            return "()"
     705
     706        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
     707        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     708
     709    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     710        original = self.identify
     711        self.identify = False
     712        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     713        self.identify = original
     714        return result
     715
     716    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     717        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     718            return name.upper()
     719        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     720            return name.lower()
     721        return name
     722
     723    def indent(
     724        self,
     725        sql: str,
     726        level: int = 0,
     727        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     728        skip_first: bool = False,
     729        skip_last: bool = False,
     730    ) -> str:
     731        if not self.pretty or not sql:
     732            return sql
     733
     734        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     735        lines = sql.split("\n")
     736
     737        return "\n".join(
     738            (
     739                line
     740                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     741                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     742            )
     743            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     744        )
     745
     746    def sql(
     747        self,
     748        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     749        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     750        comment: bool = True,
     751    ) -> str:
     752        if not expression:
     753            return ""
     754
     755        if isinstance(expression, str):
     756            return expression
     757
     758        if key:
     759            value = expression.args.get(key)
     760            if value:
     761                return self.sql(value)
     762            return ""
     763
     764        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     765
     766        if callable(transform):
     767            sql = transform(self, expression)
     768        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     769            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     770
     771            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     772                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     773            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     774                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     775            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     776                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     777            else:
     778                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     779        else:
     780            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     781
     782        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     783
     784    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     785        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     786        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     787        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     788
     789    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     790        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     791        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     792        options = expression.args.get("options")
     793        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     794        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     795        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     796        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     797        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     798
     799    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     800        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     801            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     802        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     803        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     804
     805    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     806        return ".".join(
     807            self.sql(part)
     808            for part in (
     809                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     810                expression.args.get("db"),
     811                expression.args.get("table"),
     812                expression.args.get("this"),
     813            )
     814            if part
     815        )
     816
     817    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     818        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     819
     820        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
     821            join_mark = ""
     822            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     823
     824        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     825
     826    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     828        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     829        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     830        return f"{position}{this}"
     831
     832    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     833        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     834        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     835        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     836        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     837        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     838        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     839        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     840        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     841
     842        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     843            kind = ""
     844
     845        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     846
     847    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     849        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     850        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     851
     852    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     854        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     855            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     856        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     857            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     858        else:
     859            persisted = ""
     860        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     861
     862    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     863        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     864
     865    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     866        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     867            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     868        else:
     869            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     870
     871        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     872
     873    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     874        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     875    ) -> str:
     876        this = ""
     877        if expression.this is not None:
     878            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     879            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     880
     881        start = expression.args.get("start")
     882        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     883        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     884        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     885        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     886        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     887        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     888        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     889        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     890        cycle_sql = ""
     891
     892        if cycle is not None:
     893            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     894            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     895
     896        sequence_opts = ""
     897        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     898            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     899            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     900
     901        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     902        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
     903
     904        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
     905
     906    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
     907        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
     908    ) -> str:
     909        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
     910        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
     911        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
     912
     913    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
     914        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
     915    ) -> str:
     916        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
     917
     918    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
     919        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
     920
     921    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
     922        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     923
     924    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
     925        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
     926        if desc is not None:
     927            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
     928        return "PRIMARY KEY"
     929
     930    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
     931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     932        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     933        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
     934        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
     935        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
     936        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
     937        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
     938
     939    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
     940        return self.sql(expression, "this")
     941
     942    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
     943        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     944        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
     945        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
     946
     947        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
     948
     949        properties_sql = ""
     950        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
     951            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
     952        ):
     953            properties_sql = self.sql(
     954                exp.Properties(
     955                    expressions=[
     956                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
     957                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
     958                    ]
     959                )
     960            )
     961
     962        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
     963        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
     964
     965        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     966        if expression_sql:
     967            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
     968
     969            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
     970                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
     971                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
     972                        exp.Properties(
     973                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
     974                        ),
     975                        wrapped=False,
     976                    )
     977                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
     978                else:
     979                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
     980
     981        postindex_props_sql = ""
     982        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
     983            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
     984                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
     985                wrapped=False,
     986                prefix=" ",
     987            )
     988
     989        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
     990        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
     991        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
     992
     993        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
     994        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
     995
     996        postcreate_props_sql = ""
     997        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
     998            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
     999                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1000                sep=" ",
    1001                prefix=" ",
    1002                wrapped=False,
    1003            )
    1004
    1005        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1006
    1007        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1008        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1009            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1010                exp.Properties(
    1011                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1012                ),
    1013                sep=" ",
    1014                prefix=" ",
    1015                wrapped=False,
    1016            )
    1017
    1018        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1019        no_schema_binding = (
    1020            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1021        )
    1022
    1023        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1024        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1025
    1026        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1027        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1028
    1029    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1030        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1031        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1032        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1033        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1034        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1035        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1036        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1037        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1038        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1039        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1040
    1041        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1042        if cache is None:
    1043            cache_str = ""
    1044        elif cache is True:
    1045            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1046        else:
    1047            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1048
    1049        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1050        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1051
    1052        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1053
    1054    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1055        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1056        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1057        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1058        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1059
    1060    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1061        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1062        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1063        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1064
    1065    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1066        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1067        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1068
    1069    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1070        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1071        if with_:
    1072            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1073        return sql
    1074
    1075    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1076        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1077        recursive = (
    1078            "RECURSIVE "
    1079            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1080            else ""
    1081        )
    1082
    1083        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
    1084
    1085    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1086        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1087
    1088        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1089        if materialized is False:
    1090            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1091        elif materialized:
    1092            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1093
    1094        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1095
    1096    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1097        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1098        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1099        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1100
    1101        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1102            columns = ""
    1103            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1104
    1105        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1106            alias = self._next_name()
    1107
    1108        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1109
    1110    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1112        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1113            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1114        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1115
    1116    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1117        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1118        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1119            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1120        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1121
    1122    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1123        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1124        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1125            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1126        return this
    1127
    1128    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1130        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1131
    1132        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1133            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
    1134            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
    1135
    1136        if escape:
    1137            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1138        else:
    1139            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1140
    1141        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
    1142        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1143
    1144    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1145        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1146        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1147
    1148    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1150        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1151        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1152        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1153
    1154    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1155        type_value = expression.this
    1156
    1157        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1158            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1159        else:
    1160            type_sql = (
    1161                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1162                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1163                else type_value
    1164            )
    1165
    1166        nested = ""
    1167        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1168        values = ""
    1169
    1170        if interior:
    1171            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1172                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1173                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1174                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1175                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1176                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1177            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1178                nested = f" {interior}"
    1179            else:
    1180                nested = f"({interior})"
    1181
    1182        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1183        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1184            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1185            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1186        ):
    1187            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1188
    1189        return type_sql
    1190
    1191    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1192        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1193        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1194        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1195        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1196
    1197    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1198        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1199        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1200        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1201        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1202        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1203        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1204        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1205        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1206        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1207        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1208            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1209        else:
    1210            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
    1211        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1212
    1213    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1216        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1217        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1218        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1219        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1220        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1221        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1222        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1223        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1224        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1225        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1226        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1227
    1228    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1229        return self.set_operations(expression)
    1230
    1231    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1232        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1233
    1234    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1235        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1236        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1237        count = expression.args.get("count")
    1238        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1239        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1240            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1241        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1242        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1243
    1244    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1245        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1246            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1247            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1248            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1249
    1250        agg = expression.this
    1251        agg_arg = agg.this
    1252        cond = expression.expression.this
    1253        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1254        return self.sql(agg)
    1255
    1256    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1257        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1258            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1259            return ""
    1260
    1261        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1262
    1263    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1264        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1265        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1266        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1267        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1268        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1269        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1270        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1271        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1272        if include:
    1273            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1274        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1275        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1276        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1277        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1278
    1279        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
    1280
    1281    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1282        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1283        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1284        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1285        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1286        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1287        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1288        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1289
    1290        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1291
    1292        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1293        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1294
    1295    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1296        text = expression.name
    1297        lower = text.lower()
    1298        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1299        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1300        if (
    1301            expression.quoted
    1302            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1303            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1304            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1305        ):
    1306            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
    1307        return text
    1308
    1309    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1310        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1311        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1312            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1313
    1314        return text
    1315
    1316    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1317        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1318        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1319            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1320        return text
    1321
    1322    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1323        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1324        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1325        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1326        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1327        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1328
    1329    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1330        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1331        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1332
    1333    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1334        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1335
    1336    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1337        root_properties = []
    1338        with_properties = []
    1339
    1340        for p in expression.expressions:
    1341            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1342            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1343                with_properties.append(p)
    1344            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1345                root_properties.append(p)
    1346
    1347        return self.root_properties(
    1348            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
    1349        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1350
    1351    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1352        if properties.expressions:
    1353            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1354        return ""
    1355
    1356    def properties(
    1357        self,
    1358        properties: exp.Properties,
    1359        prefix: str = "",
    1360        sep: str = ", ",
    1361        suffix: str = "",
    1362        wrapped: bool = True,
    1363    ) -> str:
    1364        if properties.expressions:
    1365            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1366            if expressions:
    1367                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1368                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1369        return ""
    1370
    1371    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1372        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
    1373
    1374    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1375        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1376        for p in properties.expressions:
    1377            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1378            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1379                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1380            else:
    1381                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1382
    1383        return properties_locs
    1384
    1385    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1386        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1387            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1388        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1389
    1390    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1391        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1392        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1393            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1394
    1395        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1396        if not property_name:
    1397            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1398
    1399        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1400
    1401    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1402        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1403            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1404            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1405
    1406            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1407            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1408                like = f"({like})"
    1409
    1410            return like
    1411
    1412        if expression.expressions:
    1413            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1414
    1415        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1416        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1417
    1418    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1419        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1420        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1421        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1422
    1423    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1424        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1425        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1426        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1427        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1428        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1429        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1430        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1431
    1432    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1433        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1434        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1435        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1436
    1437    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1438        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1439            property = "DEFAULT"
    1440        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1441            property = "ON"
    1442        else:
    1443            property = "OFF"
    1444        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1445
    1446    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1447        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1448            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1449        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1450            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1451
    1452        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1453        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1454
    1455    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1456        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1457        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1458        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1459        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1460            if default:
    1461                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1462            elif minimum:
    1463                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1464            else:
    1465                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1466            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1467        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1468        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1469        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1470
    1471    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1472        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1473        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1474        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1475        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1476        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1477
    1478        if autotemp is not None:
    1479            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1480        elif always:
    1481            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1482        elif default:
    1483            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1484        elif manual:
    1485            prop = "MANUAL"
    1486        elif never:
    1487            prop = "NEVER"
    1488        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1489
    1490    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1491        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1492        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1493        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1494        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1495        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1496        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1497        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1498
    1499    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1500        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1501            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1502        if expression.this:
    1503            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1504            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1505            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1506
    1507        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1508        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1509        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1510
    1511    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1513
    1514        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1515        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1516            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1517        else:
    1518            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1519
    1520        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1521
    1522    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1523        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1524        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1525        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1526        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1527        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1528        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1529        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1530
    1531    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1532        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1533        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1534        statistics_sql = ""
    1535        if statistics is not None:
    1536            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1537        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1538
    1539    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1540        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
    1541
    1542        if expression.this:
    1543            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1544            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
    1545
    1546            if expression.expression:
    1547                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1548                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
    1549
    1550            sql = f"{sql})"
    1551
    1552        return f"{sql})"
    1553
    1554    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1555        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1556        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1557
    1558        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1559            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1560        else:
    1561            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1562
    1563        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1564        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1565        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1566        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1567        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1568        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1569        if is_function:
    1570            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1571        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1572
    1573        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1574        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1575        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1576        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1577        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1578        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1579        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1580        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1581
    1582        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1583            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1584        else:
    1585            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1586
    1587        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
    1588        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1589
    1590    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1591        return self.set_operations(expression)
    1592
    1593    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1594        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1595
    1596    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1597        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1598
    1599    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1600        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1601        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1603        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1604        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1605
    1606    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1607        return expression.name
    1608
    1609    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1610        return expression.name
    1611
    1612    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1613        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1614
    1615        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1616        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1617
    1618        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1619        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1620        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1621
    1622        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1623        if expressions:
    1624            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1625            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1626
    1627        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
    1628
    1629    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1630        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1631
    1632    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1633        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1634        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1635        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1636        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1637        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1638        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1639        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1640        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1641        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1642        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1643        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1644        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1645        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1646
    1647    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1648        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1649
    1650    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1651        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1652        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1653        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1654        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1655
    1656    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1658        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1659        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1660        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1661
    1662    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1663        return ".".join(
    1664            self.sql(part)
    1665            for part in (
    1666                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1667                expression.args.get("db"),
    1668                expression.args.get("this"),
    1669            )
    1670            if part is not None
    1671        )
    1672
    1673    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1674        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1675        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1676        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1677        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1678        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1679        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1680        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1681        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1682        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1683        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1684        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    1685        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    1686        joins = self.indent(
    1687            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1688        )
    1689        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1690
    1691        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1692        if file_format:
    1693            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1694            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1695            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1696
    1697        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1698        if ordinality:
    1699            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1700            alias = ""
    1701
    1702        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1703        if when:
    1704            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1705
    1706        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1707
    1708    def tablesample_sql(
    1709        self,
    1710        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1711        sep: str = " AS ",
    1712        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1713    ) -> str:
    1714        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
    1715            table = expression.this.copy()
    1716            table.set("alias", None)
    1717            this = self.sql(table)
    1718            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
    1719        else:
    1720            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1721            alias = ""
    1722
    1723        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1724        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1725        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1726        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1727        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1728        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1729        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1730        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1731        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1732
    1733        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1734        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1735            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1736
    1737        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1738        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1739            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1740
    1741        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1742        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1743            expr = f"({expr})"
    1744
    1745        return (
    1746            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
    1747        )
    1748
    1749    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1751
    1752        if expression.this:
    1753            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1754            if not expressions:
    1755                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1756
    1757            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1758            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1759            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1760            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1761            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1762
    1763        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1764        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1765        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    1766        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1767        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1768        if include_nulls is not None:
    1769            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1770        else:
    1771            nulls = ""
    1772        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
    1773
    1774    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1775        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1776        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1777        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1778        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    1779
    1780    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1781        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1782
    1783    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1785        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1786        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1787        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1788        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1789        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1790        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1791        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1792            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1793        else:
    1794            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1795        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1796        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1797
    1798    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    1799        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    1800
    1801        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    1802        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    1803            args = self.expressions(expression)
    1804            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1805            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    1806            values = (
    1807                f"({values})"
    1808                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
    1809                else values
    1810            )
    1811            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    1812
    1813        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    1814        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    1815        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    1816
    1817        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    1818
    1819        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    1820            row = tup.expressions
    1821
    1822            if i == 0 and column_names:
    1823                row = [
    1824                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    1825                ]
    1826
    1827            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    1828
    1829        if self.pretty:
    1830            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    1831            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    1832            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    1833            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    1834            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    1835
    1836        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    1837        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    1838        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    1839
    1840    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    1841        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1842
    1843    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    1844        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1845        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    1846        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1847
    1848    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    1849        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1850
    1851    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    1852        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    1853        if group_by_all is True:
    1854            modifier = " ALL"
    1855        elif group_by_all is False:
    1856            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    1857        else:
    1858            modifier = ""
    1859
    1860        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    1861
    1862        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
    1863        grouping_sets = (
    1864            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
    1865        )
    1866
    1867        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
    1868        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
    1869            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
    1870        else:
    1871            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
    1872            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
    1873
    1874        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
    1875        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
    1876            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
    1877        else:
    1878            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
    1879            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
    1880
    1881        groupings = csv(
    1882            grouping_sets,
    1883            cube_sql,
    1884            rollup_sql,
    1885            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    1886            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    1887        )
    1888
    1889        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
    1890            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    1891
    1892        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    1893
    1894    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    1895        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1896        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    1897
    1898    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    1899        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1900        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    1901        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    1902        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    1903        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    1904        return start + connect
    1905
    1906    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    1907        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1908
    1909    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    1910        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    1911            side = None
    1912        else:
    1913            side = expression.side
    1914
    1915        op_sql = " ".join(
    1916            op
    1917            for op in (
    1918                expression.method,
    1919                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    1920                side,
    1921                expression.kind,
    1922                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    1923            )
    1924            if op
    1925        )
    1926        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    1927        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    1928        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1929        using = expression.args.get("using")
    1930
    1931        if not on_sql and using:
    1932            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    1933
    1934        this = expression.this
    1935        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    1936
    1937        if on_sql:
    1938            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    1939            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    1940            if using:
    1941                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    1942            else:
    1943                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    1944        elif not op_sql:
    1945            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    1946                return f" {this_sql}"
    1947
    1948            return f", {this_sql}"
    1949
    1950        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    1951        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
    1952
    1953    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    1954        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1955        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    1956        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1957
    1958    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1959        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    1960
    1961        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    1962        if cross_apply is True:
    1963            op = "INNER JOIN "
    1964        elif cross_apply is False:
    1965            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    1966        else:
    1967            op = ""
    1968
    1969        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    1970
    1971    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1973
    1974        if expression.args.get("view"):
    1975            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    1976            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    1977            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    1978            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    1979            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    1980            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    1981
    1982        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1983        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1984        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    1985
    1986    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    1987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1988
    1989        args = [
    1990            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    1991            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    1992            if e
    1993        ]
    1994
    1995        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    1996        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    1997        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1998        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1999
    2000        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    2001
    2002    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2004        value = expression.expression
    2005        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2006        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2007        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2008        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    2009
    2010    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2011        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2012        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2014        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2015        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2016        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2017        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2018        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    2019
    2020    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2021        expressions = (
    2022            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    2023        )
    2024        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2025        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    2026
    2027    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2028        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2029
    2030    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2031        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2032            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2033            return ""
    2034
    2035        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2036        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2037        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2038        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2039
    2040        if wait is not None:
    2041            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2042                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2043            else:
    2044                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2045
    2046        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2047
    2048    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2049        text = expression.this or ""
    2050        if expression.is_string:
    2051            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2052        return text
    2053
    2054    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2055        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2056            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2057            text = "".join(
    2058                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2059            )
    2060
    2061        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2062            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2063        )
    2064
    2065    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2066        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2067        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2068        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2069        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2070        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2071        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2072        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2073        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2074        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2075        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2076        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2077
    2078    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2079        return "NULL"
    2080
    2081    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2082        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2083
    2084    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2086        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2087        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2088        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2089        interpolated_values = [
    2090            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2091            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2092        ]
    2093        interpolate = (
    2094            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2095        )
    2096        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
    2097
    2098    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2099        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2100        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2101        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2102        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2103        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2104        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2105        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
    2106
    2107    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2108        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2109
    2110    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2111        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2112
    2113    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2114        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2115
    2116    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2117        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2118        asc = not desc
    2119
    2120        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2121        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2122        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2123        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2124        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2125
    2126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2127
    2128        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2129        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2130        if nulls_first and (
    2131            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2132        ):
    2133            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2134        elif (
    2135            nulls_last
    2136            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2137            and not nulls_are_last
    2138        ):
    2139            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2140
    2141        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2142        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2143            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2144            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2145                self.unsupported(
    2146                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2147                )
    2148                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2149            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2150                if expression.this.is_int:
    2151                    self.unsupported(
    2152                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2153                    )
    2154                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2155                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2156                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2157                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2158
    2159        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2160        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2161
    2162        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2163
    2164    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2165        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2166        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2167
    2168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2169
    2170        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2171
    2172    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2173        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2174        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2175        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2176        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2177        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2178        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2179        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2180        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2181        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2182        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2183        definition_sqls = [
    2184            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2185            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2186        ]
    2187        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2188        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2189        body = "".join(
    2190            (
    2191                partition,
    2192                order,
    2193                measures,
    2194                rows,
    2195                after,
    2196                pattern,
    2197                define,
    2198            )
    2199        )
    2200        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2201        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2202        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2203
    2204    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2205        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2206
    2207        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2208            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2209        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2210            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2211
    2212        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2213        if options:
    2214            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
    2215
    2216        return csv(
    2217            *sqls,
    2218            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2219            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2220            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2221            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2222            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2223            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2224            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2225            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2226            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2227            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2228            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2229            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2230            options,
    2231            sep="",
    2232        )
    2233
    2234    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2235        return ""
    2236
    2237    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2238        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2239    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2240        return [
    2241            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2242            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2243        ]
    2244
    2245    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2246        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2247        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2248        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2249
    2250    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2251        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2252        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2253            into.pop()
    2254
    2255        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2256        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2257        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2258        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2259
    2260        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2261        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2262            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2263            limit.pop()
    2264        else:
    2265            top = ""
    2266
    2267        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2268
    2269        if kind:
    2270            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2271                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2272            else:
    2273                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2274                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2275                        sqls=[
    2276                            self.sql(
    2277                                exp.Struct(
    2278                                    expressions=[
    2279                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2280                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2281                                        else e
    2282                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2283                                    ]
    2284                                )
    2285                            )
    2286                        ]
    2287                    )
    2288                kind = ""
    2289
    2290        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2291        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2292        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2293        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2294        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2295            expression,
    2296            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2297            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2298            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2299        )
    2300
    2301        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2302
    2303        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2304            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2305                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2306            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2307                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2308            else:
    2309                table_kind = ""
    2310            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2311
    2312        return sql
    2313
    2314    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2316        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2317        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2318
    2319    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2320        if expression.expressions:
    2321            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2322        return ""
    2323
    2324    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2325        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2326        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2327        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2328        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2329        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2330        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2331        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
    2332
    2333    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2334        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2335        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2336
    2337    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2339        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2340        if kind:
    2341            kind = f"{kind}."
    2342        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2343
    2344    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2345        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2346
    2347    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2348        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2349        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2350
    2351        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    2352        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    2353
    2354        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2355        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2356
    2357    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2358        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2359        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2360
    2361    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2362        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
    2363            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2364            order = expression.args.get("order")
    2365
    2366            if limit or order:
    2367                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    2368
    2369                if limit:
    2370                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    2371                if order:
    2372                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    2373                return self.sql(select)
    2374
    2375        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2376        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    2377
    2378        while stack:
    2379            node = stack.pop()
    2380
    2381            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
    2382                stack.append(node.expression)
    2383                stack.append(
    2384                    self.maybe_comment(
    2385                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
    2386                        comments=node.comments,
    2387                        separated=True,
    2388                    )
    2389                )
    2390                stack.append(node.this)
    2391            else:
    2392                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    2393
    2394        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    2395        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    2396        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    2397
    2398    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2399        return self.set_operations(expression)
    2400
    2401    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2402        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
    2403        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
    2404        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    2405        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
    2406
    2407    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2408        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2409
    2410        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2411        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2412
    2413        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2414            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2415                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2416
    2417        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2418            columns = alias.columns
    2419            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2420        else:
    2421            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2422
    2423        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2424        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2425            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2426        else:
    2427            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2428                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2429            elif offset:
    2430                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2431            else:
    2432                suffix = alias
    2433
    2434        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2435
    2436    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2437        return ""
    2438
    2439    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2440        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2441        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2442
    2443    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2445        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2446        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2447        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2448        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2449        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2450        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2451
    2452        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2453
    2454        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2455        if first is None:
    2456            first = ""
    2457        else:
    2458            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2459
    2460        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2461            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2462
    2463        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2464        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2465
    2466    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2467        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2468        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2469
    2470    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2471        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2472        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2473        end = (
    2474            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2475            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2476        )
    2477        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2478
    2479    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2481        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2482        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2483
    2484    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2486        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2487        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2488        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2489
    2490    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2491        return apply_index_offset(
    2492            expression.this,
    2493            expression.expressions,
    2494            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2495        )
    2496
    2497    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2498        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2499        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2500        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2501
    2502    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2503        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2504
    2505    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2506        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2507        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2508            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2509                this = self.wrap(this)
    2510            return f"ANY{this}"
    2511        return f"ANY {this}"
    2512
    2513    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2514        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2515
    2516    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2518        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2519
    2520        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2521            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2522            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2523
    2524        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2525
    2526        if default:
    2527            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2528
    2529        statements.append("END")
    2530
    2531        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2532            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2533
    2534        return " ".join(statements)
    2535
    2536    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2538        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2539        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2540
    2541    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2542        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2543        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2544        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2545
    2546    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2548        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2549        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2550
    2551    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2552        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2553
    2554        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2555            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
    2556        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2557            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
    2558        else:
    2559            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
    2560
    2561    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2562        args = expression.expressions
    2563        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2564            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2565
    2566        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2567            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2568
    2569        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2570            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2571
    2572        return args
    2573
    2574    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2575        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2576
    2577        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2578        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2579            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2580
    2581        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2582
    2583    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2584        return self.func(
    2585            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2586        )
    2587
    2588    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2589        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2590        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2591
    2592    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2593        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2594        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2595        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2596        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2597        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2598        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2599        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2600        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2601
    2602    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2603        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2604        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2605        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2606        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2607
    2608    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2609        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2610
    2611    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2612        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2613        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2614        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2615
    2616    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2617        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2618
    2619    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2620        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2621        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2622
    2623    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2624        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2625            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2626            if not callable(transform):
    2627                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2628                return ""
    2629
    2630            return transform(self, expression)
    2631
    2632        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2633            return str(expression)
    2634
    2635        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2636            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2637            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2638        else:
    2639            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2640            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2641
    2642        return escaped
    2643
    2644    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2645        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2646
    2647    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2648        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2649        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2650
    2651        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2652        if unique_keys is not None:
    2653            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2654        else:
    2655            unique_keys = ""
    2656
    2657        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2658        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2659        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2660        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2661
    2662        return self.func(
    2663            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2664            *expression.expressions,
    2665            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2666        )
    2667
    2668    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2669        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2670
    2671    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2672        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2673        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2674        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2675        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2676        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2677        return self.func(
    2678            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2679        )
    2680
    2681    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2683        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2684        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2685        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2686        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2687        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2688        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2689        return self.func(
    2690            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2691            this,
    2692            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2693        )
    2694
    2695    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2696        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2697        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2698        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2699
    2700        if nested_schema:
    2701            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2702
    2703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2704        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2705        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2706        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2707
    2708    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2709        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2710
    2711    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2713        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2714        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2715        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2716        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2717        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2718        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2719        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2720        return self.func(
    2721            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2722        )
    2723
    2724    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2726        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2727        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2728        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2729        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2730        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2731
    2732    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2734        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2735        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2736        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2737        with_ = (
    2738            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2739            if expressions
    2740            else ""
    2741        )
    2742        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2743
    2744    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2745        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2746        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2747        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2748        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2749
    2750        if query:
    2751            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2752        elif unnest:
    2753            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2754        elif field:
    2755            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2756        else:
    2757            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2758
    2759        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    2760
    2761    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2762        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    2763
    2764    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2765        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2766        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2767            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2768        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2769
    2770        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2771            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2772            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2773
    2774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2775        if this:
    2776            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2777            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2778
    2779        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    2780
    2781    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2782        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2783
    2784    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2786        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2787        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2788        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2789        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2790        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    2791
    2792    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2793        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
    2794
    2795    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2796        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2797        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2798
    2799    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2800        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2801        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2802        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2803        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    2804
    2805    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2806        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2807
    2808    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    2809        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2810        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2811        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    2812
    2813    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    2814        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2815        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    2816
    2817        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2818            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    2819        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2820            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    2821
    2822        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    2823
    2824    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    2825        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2826
    2827    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2829        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2830        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    2831
    2832    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2834        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2835        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    2836
    2837    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    2838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2839        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2840        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    2841
    2842    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    2843        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    2844
    2845    def and_sql(
    2846        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2847    ) -> str:
    2848        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    2849
    2850    def or_sql(
    2851        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2852    ) -> str:
    2853        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    2854
    2855    def xor_sql(
    2856        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2857    ) -> str:
    2858        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    2859
    2860    def connector_sql(
    2861        self,
    2862        expression: exp.Connector,
    2863        op: str,
    2864        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    2865    ) -> str:
    2866        if stack is not None:
    2867            if expression.expressions:
    2868                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    2869            else:
    2870                stack.append(expression.right)
    2871                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    2872                    for comment in expression.comments:
    2873                        if comment:
    2874                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    2875                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    2876            return op
    2877
    2878        stack = [expression]
    2879        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2880        ops = set()
    2881
    2882        while stack:
    2883            node = stack.pop()
    2884            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    2885                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    2886            else:
    2887                sql = self.sql(node)
    2888                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    2889                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    2890                else:
    2891                    sqls.append(sql)
    2892
    2893        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    2894        return sep.join(sqls)
    2895
    2896    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    2897        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    2898
    2899    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    2900        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    2901
    2902    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    2903        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2904
    2905    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    2906        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    2907
    2908    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    2909        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    2910
    2911    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    2912        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    2913
    2914    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    2915        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2916        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    2917        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2918        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2919        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    2920        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    2921        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
    2922
    2923    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    2924        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2925        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    2926
    2927    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
    2928        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
    2929
    2930    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    2931        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    2932            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    2933        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    2934
    2935    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    2936        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    2937
    2938    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    2939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2940        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    2941        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    2942        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2943        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2944        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    2945
    2946    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    2947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2948        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    2949        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    2950        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    2951        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    2952        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    2953        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    2954        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    2955        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    2956
    2957    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    2958        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2959        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2960        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    2961        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    2962
    2963        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    2964            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2965
    2966        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    2967
    2968    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    2969        return "BEGIN"
    2970
    2971    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    2972        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    2973        if chain is not None:
    2974            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    2975
    2976        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    2977
    2978    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    2979        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    2980        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    2981        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    2982
    2983    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    2984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2985
    2986        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    2987        if dtype:
    2988            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2989            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2990            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    2991            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    2992            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    2993
    2994        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2995        if default:
    2996            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    2997
    2998        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    2999        if comment:
    3000            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3001
    3002        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
    3003            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3004
    3005        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    3006
    3007    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3009        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3010            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3011        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
    3012
    3013    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3014        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3016        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3017        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3018        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
    3019
    3020    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    3021        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3022            # Remove db from tables
    3023            expression = expression.transform(
    3024                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3025            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
    3026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3027        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    3028
    3029    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3030        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3031        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3032        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3033        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    3034
    3035    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    3036        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3037
    3038        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    3039            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    3040        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    3041            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    3042        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    3043            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3044        else:
    3045            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3046
    3047        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3048        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3049        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3050        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3051        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3052        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3053        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
    3054
    3055    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    3056        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3057            return self.expressions(
    3058                expression,
    3059                key="actions",
    3060                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3061            )
    3062        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    3063
    3064    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3065        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3066        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3067        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3068
    3069    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3070        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3071
    3072    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3073        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3074
    3075        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3076            case = exp.case()
    3077            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3078                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3079            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3080
    3081        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3082
    3083        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3084        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3085        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3086
    3087    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3088        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3089
    3090    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3091        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3092
    3093    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3094        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3095        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3096        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3097        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3098
    3099    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3100        return self.sql(
    3101            exp.Cast(
    3102                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3103                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3104            )
    3105        )
    3106
    3107    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3108        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3109            return self.func(
    3110                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3111            )
    3112        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3113
    3114    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3115        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3116
    3117        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3118            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3119
    3120        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3121            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3122                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3123
    3124        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3125            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3126                return self.sql(
    3127                    exp.cast(
    3128                        l / r,
    3129                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3130                    )
    3131                )
    3132
    3133        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3134
    3135    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3136        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3137
    3138    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3139        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3140
    3141    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3142        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3143
    3144    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3145        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3146
    3147    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3148        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3149
    3150    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3151        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3152
    3153    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3154        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3155
    3156    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3157        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3158
    3159    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3160        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3161
    3162    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3163        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3164
    3165    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3166        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3167
    3168    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3169        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3170            return self.sql(
    3171                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3172            )
    3173        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3174
    3175    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3176        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3177
    3178    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3179        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3180
    3181    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3182        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3183
    3184    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3185        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3186
    3187    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3188        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3189
    3190    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3191        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3192
    3193    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3194        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3195
    3196    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3197        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3198
    3199    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3200        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3201
    3202    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3203        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3204
    3205    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3206        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3207
    3208    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3209        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3210
    3211    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3212        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3213
    3214    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3215        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3216            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3217            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3218
    3219        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
    3220
    3221    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3222        this = expression.this
    3223        expr = expression.expression
    3224
    3225        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3226            this, expr = expr, this
    3227        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3228            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3229                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3230
    3231            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3232
    3233        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3234
    3235    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3236        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3237        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3239        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3240        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3241
    3242    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3243        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
    3244        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3245
    3246    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3247        args = []
    3248
    3249        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3250            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3251
    3252            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3253                for value in arg_value:
    3254                    args.append(value)
    3255            elif arg_value is not None:
    3256                args.append(arg_value)
    3257
    3258        if self.normalize_functions:
    3259            name = expression.sql_name()
    3260        else:
    3261            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3262
    3263        return self.func(name, *args)
    3264
    3265    def func(
    3266        self,
    3267        name: str,
    3268        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3269        prefix: str = "(",
    3270        suffix: str = ")",
    3271    ) -> str:
    3272        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3273
    3274    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3275        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
    3276        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3277            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3278        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
    3279
    3280    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3281        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3282
    3283    def format_time(
    3284        self,
    3285        expression: exp.Expression,
    3286        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3287        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3288    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3289        return format_time(
    3290            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3291            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3292            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3293        )
    3294
    3295    def expressions(
    3296        self,
    3297        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3298        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3299        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3300        flat: bool = False,
    3301        indent: bool = True,
    3302        skip_first: bool = False,
    3303        skip_last: bool = False,
    3304        sep: str = ", ",
    3305        prefix: str = "",
    3306        dynamic: bool = False,
    3307        new_line: bool = False,
    3308    ) -> str:
    3309        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3310
    3311        if not expressions:
    3312            return ""
    3313
    3314        if flat:
    3315            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3316
    3317        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3318
    3319        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
    3320        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
    3321            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
    3322
    3323        result_sqls = []
    3324        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3325            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3326            if not sql:
    3327                continue
    3328
    3329            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3330
    3331            if self.pretty:
    3332                if self.leading_comma:
    3333                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3334                else:
    3335                    result_sqls.append(
    3336                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3337                    )
    3338            else:
    3339                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3340
    3341        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3342            if new_line:
    3343                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3344                result_sqls.append("")
    3345            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
    3346        else:
    3347            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3348        return (
    3349            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3350            if indent
    3351            else result_sql
    3352        )
    3353
    3354    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3355        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3356        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3357        if flat:
    3358            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3359        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3360
    3361    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3362        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3363        if not property_name:
    3364            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3365        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3366
    3367    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3368        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3369
    3370    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3371        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3372
    3373    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3375        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3376        expressions = (
    3377            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3378        )
    3379        return f"{this}{expressions}"
    3380
    3381    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3383        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3384        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3385
    3386    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3387        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3388
    3389    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3390        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3391        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3392        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3393        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3394
    3395        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3396        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3397            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3398            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3399            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3400            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3401        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3402            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3403                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3404            else:
    3405                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3406        else:
    3407            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3408        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3409
    3410    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3411        table = expression.this
    3412        table_alias = ""
    3413
    3414        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3415        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3416            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3417            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3418
    3419        this = self.sql(table)
    3420        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3421        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3422        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3423        sep = self.sep()
    3424
    3425        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3426            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
    3427        )
    3428
    3429    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3430        if expression.args.get("format"):
    3431            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
    3432
    3433        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3434
    3435    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3436        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3437            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3438            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3439
    3440        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3441        if not fmt:
    3442            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3443            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3444
    3445        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3446
    3447    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3449        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3450        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3451        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3452        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3453
    3454    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3456        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3457        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3458        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3459
    3460    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3461        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3462
    3463    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3464        return ""
    3465
    3466    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3467        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3468        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3469        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3470        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3471        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3472
    3473    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3475        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3476
    3477        if having:
    3478            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3479
    3480        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3481
    3482    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3483        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3484        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3485        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3486        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3487        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3488        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3489        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3490        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3491        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3492        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3493        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3494        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3495        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3496
    3497    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3498        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3499        if key_block_size:
    3500            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3501
    3502        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3503        if using:
    3504            return f"USING {using}"
    3505
    3506        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3507        if parser:
    3508            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3509
    3510        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3511        if comment:
    3512            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3513
    3514        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3515        if visible is not None:
    3516            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3517
    3518        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3519        if engine_attr:
    3520            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3521
    3522        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3523        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3524            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3525
    3526        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3527        return ""
    3528
    3529    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3530        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3531        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    3532
    3533    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3534        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3535        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3537        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3538        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3539        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3540        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3541        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3542        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3543        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3544        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    3545
    3546    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3547        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3548            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3549
    3550        case = exp.Case().when(
    3551            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3552            expression.args["true"],
    3553            copy=False,
    3554        )
    3555        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3556        if else_cond:
    3557            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3558
    3559        return self.sql(case)
    3560
    3561    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3563        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3564        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3565        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3566        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3567        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3568
    3569    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3570        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3571
    3572    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3573        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3574
    3575    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3576        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3577        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3578        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3579        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3580        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3581        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3582
    3583    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3585        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3586        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3587
    3588    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3590        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3591        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3592
    3593    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
    3594        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
    3595
    3596    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3597        arg = expression.this
    3598        if not arg.type:
    3599            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3600
    3601            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3602
    3603        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3604            return self.sql(arg)
    3605
    3606        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3607        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    3608
    3609    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3610        this = expression.this
    3611        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3612            return self.sql(this)
    3613
    3614        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    3615
    3616    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3617        this = expression.this
    3618        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3619            return self.sql(this)
    3620
    3621        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
    3622
    3623    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3624        this = expression.this
    3625        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3626
    3627        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3628            return self.sql(
    3629                exp.cast(
    3630                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3631                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3632                )
    3633            )
    3634
    3635        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3636            return self.sql(this)
    3637
    3638        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    3639
    3640    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3641        return self.sql(
    3642            exp.func(
    3643                "DATEDIFF",
    3644                expression.this,
    3645                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3646                "day",
    3647            )
    3648        )
    3649
    3650    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3651        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3652            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3653
    3654        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3655        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3656            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3657
    3658        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3659
    3660    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3661        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3662
    3663        return self.func(
    3664            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3665        )
    3666
    3667    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3668        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3669            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3670            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3671            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3672            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3673
    3674        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3675
    3676        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3677        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3678            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3679
    3680        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3681
    3682    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
    3683        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
    3684        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3685
    3686    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3687        expression.set(
    3688            "expressions",
    3689            [
    3690                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3691                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3692                else e
    3693                for e in expression.expressions
    3694            ],
    3695        )
    3696
    3697        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3698
    3699    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3700        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3701        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3702
    3703        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    3704
    3705    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3706        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3707        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3708
    3709        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3710
    3711        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3712        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3713
    3714        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3715        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3716
    3717        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3718        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3719
    3720        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3721        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3722
    3723        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    3724
    3725    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    3726    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    3727    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3728        to = expression.this
    3729        value = expression.expression
    3730        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3731        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3732        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3733
    3734        if not to or not value:
    3735            return ""
    3736
    3737        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3738        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3739            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3740
    3741        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3742        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    3743
    3744        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    3745        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    3746            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    3747
    3748            style_value = style.name
    3749            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    3750            if not converted_style:
    3751                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    3752
    3753            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    3754
    3755            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    3756                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    3757            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    3758                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    3759            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3760                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    3761            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    3762                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    3763
    3764        if not transformed:
    3765            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    3766
    3767        return self.sql(transformed)
    3768
    3769    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    3770        this = expression.this
    3771        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    3772            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3773            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    3774
    3775        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    3776            return f".{this}"
    3777
    3778        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3779        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
    3780
    3781    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    3782        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    3783        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    3784
    3785    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    3786        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    3787            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    3788
    3789            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    3790
    3791        return expression
    3792
    3793    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    3794        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    3795            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    3796            mods = sorted(
    3797                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    3798                key=lambda x: 0
    3799                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    3800                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    3801            )
    3802
    3803            if mods:
    3804                mod = mods[0]
    3805                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    3806                this.meta["inline"] = True
    3807                mod.this.replace(this)
    3808                return self.sql(expression.this)
    3809
    3810            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    3811
    3812            if agg_func:
    3813                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    3814
    3815        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    3816
    3817    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    3818        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    3819        if self.pretty:
    3820            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    3821        return string
    3822
    3823    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    3824        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3825
    3826        if option.upper() == "FILE_FORMAT":
    3827            values = self.expressions(expression, key="expression", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3828            return f"{option} = ({values})"
    3829
    3830        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3831
    3832        if not value:
    3833            return option
    3834
    3835        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    3836
    3837        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
    3838
    3839    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    3840        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    3841        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    3842            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    3843            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    3844            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    3845        else:
    3846            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    3847            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3848            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
    3849
    3850        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    3851
    3852        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3853        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    3854
    3855        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    3856        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    3857
    3858        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    3859        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    3860
    3861        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
    3862
    3863    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    3864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3865        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    3866
    3867        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    3868        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    3869        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    3870        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    3871
    3872        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    3873        params = self.expressions(
    3874            expression,
    3875            key="params",
    3876            sep=sep,
    3877            new_line=True,
    3878            skip_last=True,
    3879            skip_first=True,
    3880            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    3881        )
    3882
    3883        if params:
    3884            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    3885                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    3886            elif not self.pretty:
    3887                params = f" {params}"
    3888
    3889        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
    3890
    3891    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    3892        return ""

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

###### Arguments:

- pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
- identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
- normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
- pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
- indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause. Default: 2.
- normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
- unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
- max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
- leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
- max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
- comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True

Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None) View Source

    550    def __init__(
    551        self,
    552        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
    553        identify: str | bool = False,
    554        normalize: bool = False,
    555        pad: int = 2,
    556        indent: int = 2,
    557        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
    558        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
    559        max_unsupported: int = 3,
    560        leading_comma: bool = False,
    561        max_text_width: int = 80,
    562        comments: bool = True,
    563        dialect: DialectType = None,
    564    ):
    565        import sqlglot
    566        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    567
    568        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
    569        self.identify = identify
    570        self.normalize = normalize
    571        self.pad = pad
    572        self._indent = indent
    573        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
    574        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
    575        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
    576        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
    577        self.comments = comments
    578        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
    579
    580        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
    581        self.normalize_functions = (
    582            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
    583        )
    584
    585        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
    586        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
    587            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    588        )
    589        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
    590            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
    591        )
    592
    593        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")

TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>}
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Create'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Delete'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Drop'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Insert'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Join'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Update'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    595    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
    596        """
    597        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
    598
    599        Args:
    600            expression: The syntax tree.
    601            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
    602                it is safer to copy.
    603
    604        Returns:
    605            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
    606        """
    607        if copy:
    608            expression = expression.copy()
    609
    610        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
    611
    612        self.unsupported_messages = []
    613        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
    614
    615        if self.pretty:
    616            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
    617
    618        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
    619            return sql
    620
    621        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
    622            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
    623                logger.warning(msg)
    624        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
    625            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
    626
    627        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

###### Arguments:

- expression: The syntax tree.
- copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.

###### Returns:

> The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression: View Source

    629    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
    630        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
    631        if (
    632            not expression.parent
    633            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
    634            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
    635        ):
    636            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
    637
    638            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
    639
    640        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
    641            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
    642
    643            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
    644
    645        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None: View Source

    647    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
    648        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
    649            raise UnsupportedError(message)
    650        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)

def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    652    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    653        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep

def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    655    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    656        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"

def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str: View Source

    658    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
    659        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
    660        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
    661        return comment

def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    663    def maybe_comment(
    664        self,
    665        sql: str,
    666        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    667        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
    668        separated: bool = False,
    669    ) -> str:
    670        comments = (
    671            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
    672            if self.comments
    673            else None
    674        )
    675
    676        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
    677            return sql
    678
    679        comments_sql = " ".join(
    680            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
    681        )
    682
    683        if not comments_sql:
    684            return sql
    685
    686        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
    687
    688        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
    689            return (
    690                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
    691                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
    692                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    693            )
    694
    695        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"

def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str: View Source

    697    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
    698        this_sql = (
    699            self.sql(expression)
    700            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
    701            else self.sql(expression, "this")
    702        )
    703        if not this_sql:
    704            return "()"
    705
    706        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
    707        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str: View Source

    709    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
    710        original = self.identify
    711        self.identify = False
    712        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
    713        self.identify = original
    714        return result

def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str: View Source

    716    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
    717        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
    718            return name.upper()
    719        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
    720            return name.lower()
    721        return name

def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    723    def indent(
    724        self,
    725        sql: str,
    726        level: int = 0,
    727        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
    728        skip_first: bool = False,
    729        skip_last: bool = False,
    730    ) -> str:
    731        if not self.pretty or not sql:
    732            return sql
    733
    734        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
    735        lines = sql.split("\n")
    736
    737        return "\n".join(
    738            (
    739                line
    740                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
    741                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
    742            )
    743            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
    744        )

def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    746    def sql(
    747        self,
    748        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
    749        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    750        comment: bool = True,
    751    ) -> str:
    752        if not expression:
    753            return ""
    754
    755        if isinstance(expression, str):
    756            return expression
    757
    758        if key:
    759            value = expression.args.get(key)
    760            if value:
    761                return self.sql(value)
    762            return ""
    763
    764        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    765
    766        if callable(transform):
    767            sql = transform(self, expression)
    768        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
    769            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
    770
    771            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
    772                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
    773            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
    774                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    775            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
    776                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
    777            else:
    778                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    779        else:
    780            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
    781
    782        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql

def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str: View Source

    784    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
    785        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    786        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    787        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"

def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str: View Source

    789    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
    790        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
    791        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    792        options = expression.args.get("options")
    793        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
    794        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    795        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
    796        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
    797        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str: View Source

    799    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
    800        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
    801            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    802        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
    803        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str: View Source

    805    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    806        return ".".join(
    807            self.sql(part)
    808            for part in (
    809                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    810                expression.args.get("db"),
    811                expression.args.get("table"),
    812                expression.args.get("this"),
    813            )
    814            if part
    815        )

def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str: View Source

    817    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    818        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
    819
    820        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
    821            join_mark = ""
    822            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
    823
    824        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"

def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str: View Source

    826    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
    827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    828        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    829        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    830        return f"{position}{this}"

def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    832    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    833        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    834        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    835        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
    836        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    837        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
    838        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
    839        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    840        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
    841
    842        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
    843            kind = ""
    844
    845        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"

def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    847    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
    848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    849        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
    850        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql

def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    852    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
    853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    854        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
    855            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
    856        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
    857            persisted = " PERSISTED"
    858        else:
    859            persisted = ""
    860        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"

def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str: View Source

    862    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
    863        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)

def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    865    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
    866        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    867            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
    868        else:
    869            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    870
    871        return f"COMPRESS {this}"

def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    873    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
    874        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
    875    ) -> str:
    876        this = ""
    877        if expression.this is not None:
    878            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
    879            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
    880
    881        start = expression.args.get("start")
    882        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    883        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
    884        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    885        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
    886        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    887        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
    888        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    889        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
    890        cycle_sql = ""
    891
    892        if cycle is not None:
    893            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
    894            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
    895
    896        sequence_opts = ""
    897        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
    898            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
    899            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
    900
    901        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    902        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    903
    904        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"

def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    906    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    907        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    908    ) -> str:
    909        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    910        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    911        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"

def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str: View Source

    913    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    914        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    915    ) -> str:
    916        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    918    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    919        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"

def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    921    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    922        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    924    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    925        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    926        if desc is not None:
    927            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    928        return "PRIMARY KEY"

def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    930    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    932        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    933        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    934        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    935        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    936        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    937        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"

def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str: View Source

    939    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    940        return self.sql(expression, "this")

def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str: View Source

     942    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
     943        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     944        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
     945        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
     946
     947        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
     948
     949        properties_sql = ""
     950        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
     951            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
     952        ):
     953            properties_sql = self.sql(
     954                exp.Properties(
     955                    expressions=[
     956                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
     957                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
     958                    ]
     959                )
     960            )
     961
     962        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
     963        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
     964
     965        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     966        if expression_sql:
     967            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
     968
     969            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
     970                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
     971                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
     972                        exp.Properties(
     973                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
     974                        ),
     975                        wrapped=False,
     976                    )
     977                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
     978                else:
     979                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
     980
     981        postindex_props_sql = ""
     982        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
     983            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
     984                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
     985                wrapped=False,
     986                prefix=" ",
     987            )
     988
     989        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
     990        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
     991        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
     992
     993        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
     994        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
     995
     996        postcreate_props_sql = ""
     997        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
     998            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
     999                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1000                sep=" ",
    1001                prefix=" ",
    1002                wrapped=False,
    1003            )
    1004
    1005        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1006
    1007        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1008        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1009            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1010                exp.Properties(
    1011                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1012                ),
    1013                sep=" ",
    1014                prefix=" ",
    1015                wrapped=False,
    1016            )
    1017
    1018        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1019        no_schema_binding = (
    1020            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1021        )
    1022
    1023        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1024        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1025
    1026        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1027        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)

def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str: View Source

    1029    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1030        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1031        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1032        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1033        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1034        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1035        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1036        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1037        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1038        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1039        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1040
    1041        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1042        if cache is None:
    1043            cache_str = ""
    1044        elif cache is True:
    1045            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1046        else:
    1047            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1048
    1049        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1050        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1051
    1052        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()

def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str: View Source

    1054    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1055        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1056        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1057        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1058        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"

def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str: View Source

    1060    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1061        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1062        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1063        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str: View Source

    1065    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1066        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1067        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"

def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str: View Source

    1069    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1070        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1071        if with_:
    1072            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1073        return sql

def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str: View Source

    1075    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1076        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1077        recursive = (
    1078            "RECURSIVE "
    1079            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1080            else ""
    1081        )
    1082
    1083        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"

def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str: View Source

    1085    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1086        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1087
    1088        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1089        if materialized is False:
    1090            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1091        elif materialized:
    1092            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1093
    1094        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"

def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str: View Source

    1096    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1097        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1098        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1099        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1100
    1101        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1102            columns = ""
    1103            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1104
    1105        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1106            alias = self._next_name()
    1107
    1108        return f"{alias}{columns}"

def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str: View Source

    1110    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1112        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1113            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1114        return f"{int(this, 2)}"

def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str: View Source

    1116    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1117        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1118        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1119            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1120        return f"{int(this, 16)}"

def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str: View Source

    1122    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1123        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1124        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1125            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1126        return this

def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str: View Source

    1128    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1130        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1131
    1132        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1133            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
    1134            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
    1135
    1136        if escape:
    1137            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1138        else:
    1139            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1140
    1141        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
    1142        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str: View Source

    1144    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1145        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1146        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str: View Source

    1148    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1150        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1151        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1152        return f"{this}{specifier}"

def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str: View Source

    1154    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1155        type_value = expression.this
    1156
    1157        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1158            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1159        else:
    1160            type_sql = (
    1161                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1162                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1163                else type_value
    1164            )
    1165
    1166        nested = ""
    1167        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1168        values = ""
    1169
    1170        if interior:
    1171            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1172                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1173                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1174                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1175                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1176                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1177            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1178                nested = f" {interior}"
    1179            else:
    1180                nested = f"({interior})"
    1181
    1182        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1183        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1184            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1185            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1186        ):
    1187            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1188
    1189        return type_sql

def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str: View Source

    1191    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1192        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1193        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1194        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1195        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"

def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str: View Source

    1197    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1198        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1199        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1200        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1201        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1202        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1203        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1204        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1205        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1206        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1207        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1208            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1209        else:
    1210            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
    1211        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")

def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str: View Source

    1213    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1216        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1217        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1218        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1219        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1220        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1221        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1222        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1223        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1224        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1225        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1226        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"

def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str: View Source

    1228    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1229        return self.set_operations(expression)

def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str: View Source

    1231    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1232        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"

def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str: View Source

    1234    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1235        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1236        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1237        count = expression.args.get("count")
    1238        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1239        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1240            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1241        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1242        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"

def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str: View Source

    1244    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1245        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1246            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1247            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1248            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1249
    1250        agg = expression.this
    1251        agg_arg = agg.this
    1252        cond = expression.expression.this
    1253        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1254        return self.sql(agg)

def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str: View Source

    1256    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1257        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1258            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1259            return ""
    1260
    1261        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"

def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str: View Source

    1263    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1264        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1265        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1266        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1267        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1268        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1269        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1270        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1271        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1272        if include:
    1273            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1274        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1275        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1276        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1277        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1278
    1279        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"

def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str: View Source

    1281    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1282        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1283        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1284        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1285        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1286        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1287        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1288        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1289
    1290        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1291
    1292        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1293        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"

def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str: View Source

    1295    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1296        text = expression.name
    1297        lower = text.lower()
    1298        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1299        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1300        if (
    1301            expression.quoted
    1302            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1303            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1304            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1305        ):
    1306            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
    1307        return text

def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str: View Source

    1309    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1310        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1311        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1312            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1313
    1314        return text

def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str: View Source

    1316    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1317        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1318        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1319            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1320        return text

def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str: View Source

    1322    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1323        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1324        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1325        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1326        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1327        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))

def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str: View Source

    1329    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1330        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1331        return f"{prefix}{string}"

def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str: View Source

    1333    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1334        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1336    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1337        root_properties = []
    1338        with_properties = []
    1339
    1340        for p in expression.expressions:
    1341            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1342            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1343                with_properties.append(p)
    1344            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1345                root_properties.append(p)
    1346
    1347        return self.root_properties(
    1348            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
    1349        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))

def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1351    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1352        if properties.expressions:
    1353            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1354        return ""

def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    1356    def properties(
    1357        self,
    1358        properties: exp.Properties,
    1359        prefix: str = "",
    1360        sep: str = ", ",
    1361        suffix: str = "",
    1362        wrapped: bool = True,
    1363    ) -> str:
    1364        if properties.expressions:
    1365            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1366            if expressions:
    1367                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1368                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1369        return ""

def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1371    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1372        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))

def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict: View Source

    1374    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1375        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1376        for p in properties.expressions:
    1377            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1378            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1379                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1380            else:
    1381                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1382
    1383        return properties_locs

def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1385    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1386        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1387            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1388        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name

def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str: View Source

    1390    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1391        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1392        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1393            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1394
    1395        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1396        if not property_name:
    1397            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1398
    1399        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str: View Source

    1401    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1402        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1403            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1404            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1405
    1406            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1407            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1408                like = f"({like})"
    1409
    1410            return like
    1411
    1412        if expression.expressions:
    1413            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1414
    1415        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1416        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"

def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str: View Source

    1418    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1419        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1420        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1421        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"

def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str: View Source

    1423    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1424        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1425        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1426        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1427        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1428        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1429        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1430        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"

def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str: View Source

    1432    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1433        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1434        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1435        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"

def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str: View Source

    1437    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1438        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1439            property = "DEFAULT"
    1440        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1441            property = "ON"
    1442        else:
    1443            property = "OFF"
    1444        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"

def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str: View Source

    1446    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1447        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1448            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1449        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1450            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1451
    1452        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1453        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"

def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str: View Source

    1455    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1456        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1457        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1458        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1459        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1460            if default:
    1461                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1462            elif minimum:
    1463                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1464            else:
    1465                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1466            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1467        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1468        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1469        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"

def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str: View Source

    1471    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1472        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1473        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1474        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1475        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1476        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1477
    1478        if autotemp is not None:
    1479            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1480        elif always:
    1481            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1482        elif default:
    1483            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1484        elif manual:
    1485            prop = "MANUAL"
    1486        elif never:
    1487            prop = "NEVER"
    1488        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"

def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str: View Source

    1490    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1491        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1492        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1493        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1494        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1495        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1496        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1497        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"

def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str: View Source

    1499    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1500        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1501            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1502        if expression.this:
    1503            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1504            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1505            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1506
    1507        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1508        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1509        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"

def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str: View Source

    1511    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1513
    1514        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1515        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1516            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1517        else:
    1518            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1519
    1520        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"

def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str: View Source

    1522    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1523        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1524        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1525        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1526        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1527        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1528        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1529        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"

def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str: View Source

    1531    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1532        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1533        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1534        statistics_sql = ""
    1535        if statistics is not None:
    1536            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1537        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"

def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str: View Source

    1539    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1540        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
    1541
    1542        if expression.this:
    1543            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1544            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
    1545
    1546            if expression.expression:
    1547                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1548                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
    1549
    1550            sql = f"{sql})"
    1551
    1552        return f"{sql})"

def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str: View Source

    1554    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1555        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1556        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1557
    1558        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1559            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1560        else:
    1561            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1562
    1563        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1564        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1565        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1566        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1567        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1568        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1569        if is_function:
    1570            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1571        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1572
    1573        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1574        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1575        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1576        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1577        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1578        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1579        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1580        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1581
    1582        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1583            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1584        else:
    1585            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1586
    1587        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
    1588        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str: View Source

    1590    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1591        return self.set_operations(expression)

def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str: View Source

    1593    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1594        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"

def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str: View Source

    1596    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1597        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str: View Source

    1599    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1600        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1601        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1603        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1604        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"

def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str: View Source

    1606    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1607        return expression.name

def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str: View Source

    1609    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1610        return expression.name

def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str: View Source

    1612    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1613        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1614
    1615        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1616        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1617
    1618        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1619        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1620        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1621
    1622        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1623        if expressions:
    1624            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1625            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1626
    1627        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"

def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str: View Source

    1629    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1630        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"

def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str: View Source

    1632    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1633        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1634        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1635        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1636        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1637        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1638        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1639        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1640        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1641        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1642        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1643        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1644        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1645        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"

def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str: View Source

    1647    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1648        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str: View Source

    1650    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1651        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1652        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1653        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1654        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str: View Source

    1656    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1658        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1659        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1660        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"

def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str: View Source

    1662    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1663        return ".".join(
    1664            self.sql(part)
    1665            for part in (
    1666                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1667                expression.args.get("db"),
    1668                expression.args.get("this"),
    1669            )
    1670            if part is not None
    1671        )

def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    1673    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1674        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1675        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1676        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1677        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1678        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1679        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1680        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1681        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1682        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1683        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1684        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    1685        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    1686        joins = self.indent(
    1687            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1688        )
    1689        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1690
    1691        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1692        if file_format:
    1693            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1694            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1695            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1696
    1697        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1698        if ordinality:
    1699            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1700            alias = ""
    1701
    1702        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1703        if when:
    1704            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1705
    1706        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"

def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    1708    def tablesample_sql(
    1709        self,
    1710        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1711        sep: str = " AS ",
    1712        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1713    ) -> str:
    1714        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
    1715            table = expression.this.copy()
    1716            table.set("alias", None)
    1717            this = self.sql(table)
    1718            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
    1719        else:
    1720            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1721            alias = ""
    1722
    1723        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1724        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1725        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1726        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1727        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1728        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1729        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1730        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1731        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1732
    1733        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1734        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1735            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1736
    1737        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1738        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1739            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1740
    1741        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1742        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1743            expr = f"({expr})"
    1744
    1745        return (
    1746            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
    1747        )

def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str: View Source

    1749    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1751
    1752        if expression.this:
    1753            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1754            if not expressions:
    1755                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1756
    1757            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1758            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1759            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1760            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1761            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1762
    1763        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1764        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1765        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    1766        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1767        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1768        if include_nulls is not None:
    1769            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1770        else:
    1771            nulls = ""
    1772        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"

def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str: View Source

    1774    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1775        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1776        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1777        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1778        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"

def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str: View Source

    1780    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1781        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str: View Source

    1783    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1785        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1786        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1787        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1788        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1789        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1790        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1791        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1792            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1793        else:
    1794            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1795        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1796        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    1798    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    1799        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    1800
    1801        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    1802        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    1803            args = self.expressions(expression)
    1804            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1805            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    1806            values = (
    1807                f"({values})"
    1808                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
    1809                else values
    1810            )
    1811            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    1812
    1813        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    1814        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    1815        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    1816
    1817        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    1818
    1819        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    1820            row = tup.expressions
    1821
    1822            if i == 0 and column_names:
    1823                row = [
    1824                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    1825                ]
    1826
    1827            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    1828
    1829        if self.pretty:
    1830            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    1831            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    1832            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    1833            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    1834            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    1835
    1836        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    1837        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    1838        return f"({unions}){alias}"

def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str: View Source

    1840    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    1841        return self.sql(expression, "this")

def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str: View Source

    1843    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    1844        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1845        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    1846        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str: View Source

    1848    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    1849        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str: View Source

    1851    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    1852        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    1853        if group_by_all is True:
    1854            modifier = " ALL"
    1855        elif group_by_all is False:
    1856            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    1857        else:
    1858            modifier = ""
    1859
    1860        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    1861
    1862        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
    1863        grouping_sets = (
    1864            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
    1865        )
    1866
    1867        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
    1868        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
    1869            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
    1870        else:
    1871            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
    1872            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
    1873
    1874        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
    1875        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
    1876            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
    1877        else:
    1878            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
    1879            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
    1880
    1881        groupings = csv(
    1882            grouping_sets,
    1883            cube_sql,
    1884            rollup_sql,
    1885            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    1886            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    1887        )
    1888
    1889        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
    1890            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    1891
    1892        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"

def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str: View Source

    1894    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    1895        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1896        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str: View Source

    1898    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    1899        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1900        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    1901        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    1902        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    1903        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    1904        return start + connect

def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str: View Source

    1906    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    1907        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str: View Source

    1909    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    1910        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    1911            side = None
    1912        else:
    1913            side = expression.side
    1914
    1915        op_sql = " ".join(
    1916            op
    1917            for op in (
    1918                expression.method,
    1919                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    1920                side,
    1921                expression.kind,
    1922                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    1923            )
    1924            if op
    1925        )
    1926        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    1927        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    1928        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1929        using = expression.args.get("using")
    1930
    1931        if not on_sql and using:
    1932            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    1933
    1934        this = expression.this
    1935        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    1936
    1937        if on_sql:
    1938            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    1939            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    1940            if using:
    1941                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    1942            else:
    1943                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    1944        elif not op_sql:
    1945            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    1946                return f" {this_sql}"
    1947
    1948            return f", {this_sql}"
    1949
    1950        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    1951        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"

def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str: View Source

    1953    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    1954        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1955        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    1956        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str: View Source

    1958    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1959        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    1960
    1961        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    1962        if cross_apply is True:
    1963            op = "INNER JOIN "
    1964        elif cross_apply is False:
    1965            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    1966        else:
    1967            op = ""
    1968
    1969        return f"{op}LATERAL"

def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str: View Source

    1971    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1973
    1974        if expression.args.get("view"):
    1975            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    1976            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    1977            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    1978            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    1979            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    1980            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    1981
    1982        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1983        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1984        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"

def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1986    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    1987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1988
    1989        args = [
    1990            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    1991            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    1992            if e
    1993        ]
    1994
    1995        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    1996        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    1997        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1998        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1999
    2000        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"

def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str: View Source

    2002    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2004        value = expression.expression
    2005        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2006        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2007        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2008        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"

def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str: View Source

    2010    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2011        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2012        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2014        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2015        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2016        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2017        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2018        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"

def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str: View Source

    2020    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2021        expressions = (
    2022            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    2023        )
    2024        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2025        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"

def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str: View Source

    2027    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2028        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str: View Source

    2030    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2031        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2032            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2033            return ""
    2034
    2035        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2036        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2037        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2038        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2039
    2040        if wait is not None:
    2041            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2042                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2043            else:
    2044                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2045
    2046        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"

def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str: View Source

    2048    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2049        text = expression.this or ""
    2050        if expression.is_string:
    2051            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2052        return text

def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    2054    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2055        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2056            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2057            text = "".join(
    2058                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2059            )
    2060
    2061        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2062            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2063        )

def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str: View Source

    2065    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2066        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2067        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2068        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2069        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2070        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2071        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2072        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2073        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2074        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2075        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2076        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"

def null_sql(self, *_) -> str: View Source

    2078    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2079        return "NULL"

def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str: View Source

    2081    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2082        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"

def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    2084    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2086        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2087        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2088        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2089        interpolated_values = [
    2090            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2091            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2092        ]
    2093        interpolate = (
    2094            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2095        )
    2096        return f"{order}{interpolate}"

def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str: View Source

    2098    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2099        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2100        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2101        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2102        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2103        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2104        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2105        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"

def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str: View Source

    2107    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2108        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)

def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str: View Source

    2110    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2111        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)

def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str: View Source

    2113    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2114        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)

def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str: View Source

    2116    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2117        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2118        asc = not desc
    2119
    2120        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2121        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2122        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2123        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2124        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2125
    2126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2127
    2128        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2129        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2130        if nulls_first and (
    2131            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2132        ):
    2133            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2134        elif (
    2135            nulls_last
    2136            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2137            and not nulls_are_last
    2138        ):
    2139            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2140
    2141        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2142        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2143            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2144            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2145                self.unsupported(
    2146                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2147                )
    2148                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2149            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2150                if expression.this.is_int:
    2151                    self.unsupported(
    2152                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2153                    )
    2154                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2155                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2156                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2157                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2158
    2159        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2160        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2161
    2162        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"

def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str: View Source

    2164    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2165        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2166        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2167
    2168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2169
    2170        return f"{window_frame}{this}"

def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str: View Source

    2172    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2173        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2174        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2175        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2176        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2177        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2178        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2179        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2180        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2181        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2182        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2183        definition_sqls = [
    2184            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2185            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2186        ]
    2187        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2188        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2189        body = "".join(
    2190            (
    2191                partition,
    2192                order,
    2193                measures,
    2194                rows,
    2195                after,
    2196                pattern,
    2197                define,
    2198            )
    2199        )
    2200        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2201        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2202        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"

def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str: View Source

    2204    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2205        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2206
    2207        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2208            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2209        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2210            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2211
    2212        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2213        if options:
    2214            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
    2215
    2216        return csv(
    2217            *sqls,
    2218            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2219            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2220            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2221            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2222            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2223            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2224            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2225            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2226            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2227            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2228            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2229            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2230            options,
    2231            sep="",
    2232        )

def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str: View Source

    2234    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2235        return ""

def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]: View Source

    2237    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2238        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2239    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2240        return [
    2241            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2242            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2243        ]

def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]: View Source

    2245    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2246        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2247        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2248        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]

def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str: View Source

    2250    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2251        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2252        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2253            into.pop()
    2254
    2255        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2256        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2257        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2258        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2259
    2260        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2261        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2262            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2263            limit.pop()
    2264        else:
    2265            top = ""
    2266
    2267        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2268
    2269        if kind:
    2270            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2271                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2272            else:
    2273                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2274                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2275                        sqls=[
    2276                            self.sql(
    2277                                exp.Struct(
    2278                                    expressions=[
    2279                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2280                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2281                                        else e
    2282                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2283                                    ]
    2284                                )
    2285                            )
    2286                        ]
    2287                    )
    2288                kind = ""
    2289
    2290        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2291        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2292        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2293        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2294        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2295            expression,
    2296            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2297            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2298            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2299        )
    2300
    2301        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2302
    2303        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2304            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2305                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2306            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2307                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2308            else:
    2309                table_kind = ""
    2310            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2311
    2312        return sql

def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str: View Source

    2314    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2316        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2317        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql

def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str: View Source

    2319    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2320        if expression.expressions:
    2321            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2322        return ""

def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str: View Source

    2324    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2325        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2326        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2327        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2328        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2329        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2330        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2331        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"

def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str: View Source

    2333    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2334        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2335        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"

def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str: View Source

    2337    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2339        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2340        if kind:
    2341            kind = f"{kind}."
    2342        return f"@@{kind}{this}"

def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str: View Source

    2344    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2345        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"

def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    2347    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2348        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2349        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2350
    2351        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    2352        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    2353
    2354        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2355        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str: View Source

    2357    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2358        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2359        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str: View Source

    2361    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2362        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
    2363            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2364            order = expression.args.get("order")
    2365
    2366            if limit or order:
    2367                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    2368
    2369                if limit:
    2370                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    2371                if order:
    2372                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    2373                return self.sql(select)
    2374
    2375        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2376        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    2377
    2378        while stack:
    2379            node = stack.pop()
    2380
    2381            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
    2382                stack.append(node.expression)
    2383                stack.append(
    2384                    self.maybe_comment(
    2385                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
    2386                        comments=node.comments,
    2387                        separated=True,
    2388                    )
    2389                )
    2390                stack.append(node.this)
    2391            else:
    2392                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    2393
    2394        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    2395        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    2396        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)

def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str: View Source

    2398    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2399        return self.set_operations(expression)

def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str: View Source

    2401    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2402        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
    2403        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
    2404        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    2405        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"

def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str: View Source

    2407    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2408        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2409
    2410        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2411        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2412
    2413        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2414            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2415                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2416
    2417        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2418            columns = alias.columns
    2419            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2420        else:
    2421            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2422
    2423        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2424        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2425            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2426        else:
    2427            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2428                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2429            elif offset:
    2430                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2431            else:
    2432                suffix = alias
    2433
    2434        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"

def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str: View Source

    2436    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2437        return ""

def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str: View Source

    2439    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2440        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2441        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str: View Source

    2443    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2445        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2446        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2447        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2448        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2449        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2450        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2451
    2452        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2453
    2454        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2455        if first is None:
    2456            first = ""
    2457        else:
    2458            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2459
    2460        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2461            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2462
    2463        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2464        return f"{this} ({args})"

def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str: View Source

    2466    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2467        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2468        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""

def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str: View Source

    2470    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2471        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2472        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2473        end = (
    2474            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2475            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2476        )
    2477        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"

def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str: View Source

    2479    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2481        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2482        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"

def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str: View Source

    2484    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2486        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2487        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2488        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"

def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]: View Source

    2490    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2491        return apply_index_offset(
    2492            expression.this,
    2493            expression.expressions,
    2494            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2495        )

def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str: View Source

    2497    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2498        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2499        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2500        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"

def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str: View Source

    2502    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2503        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"

def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str: View Source

    2505    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2506        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2507        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2508            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2509                this = self.wrap(this)
    2510            return f"ANY{this}"
    2511        return f"ANY {this}"

def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str: View Source

    2513    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2514        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"

def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str: View Source

    2516    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2518        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2519
    2520        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2521            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2522            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2523
    2524        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2525
    2526        if default:
    2527            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2528
    2529        statements.append("END")
    2530
    2531        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2532            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2533
    2534        return " ".join(statements)

def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str: View Source

    2536    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2538        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2539        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"

def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str: View Source

    2541    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2542        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2543        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2544        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"

def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str: View Source

    2546    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2548        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2549        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"

def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str: View Source

    2551    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2552        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2553
    2554        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2555            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
    2556        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2557            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
    2558        else:
    2559            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)

def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]: View Source

    2561    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2562        args = expression.expressions
    2563        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2564            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2565
    2566        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2567            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2568
    2569        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2570            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2571
    2572        return args

def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str: View Source

    2574    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2575        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2576
    2577        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2578        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2579            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2580
    2581        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)

def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str: View Source

    2583    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2584        return self.func(
    2585            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2586        )

def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str: View Source

    2588    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2589        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2590        return f"CHECK ({this})"

def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str: View Source

    2592    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2593        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2594        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2595        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2596        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2597        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2598        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2599        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2600        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"

def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str: View Source

    2602    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2603        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2604        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2605        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2606        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"

def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str: View Source

    2608    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2609        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))

def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str: View Source

    2611    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2612        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2613        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2614        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"

def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str: View Source

    2616    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2617        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str: View Source

    2619    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2620        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2621        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str: View Source

    2623    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2624        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2625            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2626            if not callable(transform):
    2627                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2628                return ""
    2629
    2630            return transform(self, expression)
    2631
    2632        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2633            return str(expression)
    2634
    2635        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2636            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2637            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2638        else:
    2639            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2640            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2641
    2642        return escaped

def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str: View Source

    2644    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2645        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"

def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str: View Source

    2647    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2648        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2649        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2650
    2651        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2652        if unique_keys is not None:
    2653            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2654        else:
    2655            unique_keys = ""
    2656
    2657        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2658        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2659        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2660        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2661
    2662        return self.func(
    2663            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2664            *expression.expressions,
    2665            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2666        )

def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str: View Source

    2668    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2669        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)

def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str: View Source

    2671    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2672        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2673        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2674        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2675        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2676        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2677        return self.func(
    2678            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2679        )

def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str: View Source

    2681    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2683        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2684        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2685        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2686        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2687        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2688        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2689        return self.func(
    2690            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2691            this,
    2692            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2693        )

def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str: View Source

    2695    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2696        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2697        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2698        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2699
    2700        if nested_schema:
    2701            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2702
    2703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2704        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2705        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2706        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"

def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str: View Source

    2708    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2709        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)

def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str: View Source

    2711    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2713        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2714        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2715        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2716        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2717        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2718        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2719        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2720        return self.func(
    2721            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2722        )

def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str: View Source

    2724    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2726        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2727        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2728        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2729        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2730        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"

def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str: View Source

    2732    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2734        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2735        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2736        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2737        with_ = (
    2738            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2739            if expressions
    2740            else ""
    2741        )
    2742        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"

def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str: View Source

    2744    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2745        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2746        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2747        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2748        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2749
    2750        if query:
    2751            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2752        elif unnest:
    2753            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2754        elif field:
    2755            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2756        else:
    2757            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2758
    2759        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"

def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str: View Source

    2761    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2762        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"

def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str: View Source

    2764    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2765        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2766        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2767            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2768        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2769
    2770        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2771            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2772            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2773
    2774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2775        if this:
    2776            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2777            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2778
    2779        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"

def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str: View Source

    2781    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2782        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str: View Source

    2784    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2786        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2787        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2788        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2789        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2790        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"

def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str: View Source

    2792    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2793        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)

def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str: View Source

    2795    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2796        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2797        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str: View Source

    2799    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2800        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2801        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2802        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2803        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"

def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str: View Source

    2805    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2806        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str: View Source

    2808    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    2809        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2810        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2811        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"

def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str: View Source

    2813    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    2814        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2815        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    2816
    2817        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2818            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    2819        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2820            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    2821
    2822        return self.alias_sql(expression)

def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str: View Source

    2824    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    2825        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    2827    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2829        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2830        return f"{this} AT {index}"

def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    2832    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2834        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2835        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"

def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    2837    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    2838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2839        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2840        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"

def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str: View Source

    2842    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    2843        return self.binary(expression, "+")

def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    2845    def and_sql(
    2846        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2847    ) -> str:
    2848        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)

def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    2850    def or_sql(
    2851        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2852    ) -> str:
    2853        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)

def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    2855    def xor_sql(
    2856        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2857    ) -> str:
    2858        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)

def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    2860    def connector_sql(
    2861        self,
    2862        expression: exp.Connector,
    2863        op: str,
    2864        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    2865    ) -> str:
    2866        if stack is not None:
    2867            if expression.expressions:
    2868                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    2869            else:
    2870                stack.append(expression.right)
    2871                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    2872                    for comment in expression.comments:
    2873                        if comment:
    2874                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    2875                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    2876            return op
    2877
    2878        stack = [expression]
    2879        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2880        ops = set()
    2881
    2882        while stack:
    2883            node = stack.pop()
    2884            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    2885                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    2886            else:
    2887                sql = self.sql(node)
    2888                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    2889                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    2890                else:
    2891                    sqls.append(sql)
    2892
    2893        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    2894        return sep.join(sqls)

def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str: View Source

    2896    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    2897        return self.binary(expression, "&")

def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str: View Source

    2899    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    2900        return self.binary(expression, "<<")

def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str: View Source

    2902    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    2903        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str: View Source

    2905    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    2906        return self.binary(expression, "|")

def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str: View Source

    2908    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    2909        return self.binary(expression, ">>")

def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str: View Source

    2911    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    2912        return self.binary(expression, "^")

def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    2914    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    2915        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2916        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    2917        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2918        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2919        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    2920        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    2921        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"

def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str: View Source

    2923    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    2924        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2925        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"

def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str: View Source

    2927    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
    2928        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)

def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str: View Source

    2930    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    2931        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    2932            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    2933        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")

def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str: View Source

    2935    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    2936        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"

def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str: View Source

    2938    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    2939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2940        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    2941        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    2942        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2943        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2944        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"

def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str: View Source

    2946    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    2947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2948        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    2949        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    2950        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    2951        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    2952        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    2953        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    2954        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    2955        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"

def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str: View Source

    2957    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    2958        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2959        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2960        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    2961        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    2962
    2963        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    2964            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2965
    2966        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"

def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str: View Source

    2968    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    2969        return "BEGIN"

def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str: View Source

    2971    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    2972        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    2973        if chain is not None:
    2974            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    2975
    2976        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"

def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str: View Source

    2978    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    2979        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    2980        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    2981        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"

def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str: View Source

    2983    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    2984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2985
    2986        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    2987        if dtype:
    2988            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2989            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2990            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    2991            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    2992            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    2993
    2994        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2995        if default:
    2996            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    2997
    2998        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    2999        if comment:
    3000            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3001
    3002        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
    3003            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3004
    3005        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"

def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str: View Source

    3007    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3009        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3010            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3011        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"

def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str: View Source

    3013    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3014        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3016        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3017        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3018        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"

def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str: View Source

    3020    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    3021        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3022            # Remove db from tables
    3023            expression = expression.transform(
    3024                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3025            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
    3026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3027        return f"RENAME TO {this}"

def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str: View Source

    3029    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3030        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3031        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3032        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3033        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"

def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str: View Source

    3035    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    3036        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3037
    3038        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    3039            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    3040        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    3041            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    3042        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    3043            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3044        else:
    3045            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3046
    3047        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3048        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3049        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3050        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3051        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3052        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3053        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"

def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str: View Source

    3055    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    3056        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3057            return self.expressions(
    3058                expression,
    3059                key="actions",
    3060                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3061            )
    3062        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"

def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str: View Source

    3064    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3065        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3066        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3067        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"

def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3069    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3070        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"

def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str: View Source

    3072    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3073        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3074
    3075        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3076            case = exp.case()
    3077            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3078                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3079            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3080
    3081        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3082
    3083        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3084        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3085        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"

def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str: View Source

    3087    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3088        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")

def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str: View Source

    3090    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3091        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")

def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str: View Source

    3093    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3094        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3095        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3096        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3097        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"

def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str: View Source

    3099    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3100        return self.sql(
    3101            exp.Cast(
    3102                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3103                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3104            )
    3105        )

def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str: View Source

    3107    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3108        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3109            return self.func(
    3110                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3111            )
    3112        return self.binary(expression, "||")

def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str: View Source

    3114    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3115        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3116
    3117        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3118            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3119
    3120        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3121            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3122                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3123
    3124        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3125            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3126                return self.sql(
    3127                    exp.cast(
    3128                        l / r,
    3129                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3130                    )
    3131                )
    3132
    3133        return self.binary(expression, "/")

def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str: View Source

    3135    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3136        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")

def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str: View Source

    3138    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3139        return self.binary(expression, "<->")

def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str: View Source

    3141    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3142        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str: View Source

    3144    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3145        return self.binary(expression, "=")

def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str: View Source

    3147    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3148        return self.binary(expression, ":=")

def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str: View Source

    3150    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3151        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")

def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str: View Source

    3153    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3154        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")

def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str: View Source

    3156    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3157        return self.binary(expression, ">")

def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str: View Source

    3159    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3160        return self.binary(expression, ">=")

def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str: View Source

    3162    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3163        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")

def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str: View Source

    3165    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3166        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")

def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str: View Source

    3168    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3169        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3170            return self.sql(
    3171                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3172            )
    3173        return self.binary(expression, "IS")

def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str: View Source

    3175    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3176        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")

def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str: View Source

    3178    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3179        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")

def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str: View Source

    3181    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3182        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")

def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str: View Source

    3184    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3185        return self.binary(expression, "<")

def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str: View Source

    3187    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3188        return self.binary(expression, "<=")

def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str: View Source

    3190    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3191        return self.binary(expression, "%")

def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str: View Source

    3193    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3194        return self.binary(expression, "*")

def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str: View Source

    3196    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3197        return self.binary(expression, "<>")

def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str: View Source

    3199    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3200        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")

def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str: View Source

    3202    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3203        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")

def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str: View Source

    3205    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3206        return self.binary(expression, ":")

def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str: View Source

    3208    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3209        return self.binary(expression, "-")

def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str: View Source

    3211    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3212        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")

def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str: View Source

    3214    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3215        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3216            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3217            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3218
    3219        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)

def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str: View Source

    3221    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3222        this = expression.this
    3223        expr = expression.expression
    3224
    3225        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3226            this, expr = expr, this
    3227        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3228            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3229                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3230
    3231            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3232
    3233        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)

def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str: View Source

    3235    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3236        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3237        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3239        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3240        return f"USE{kind}{this}"

def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str: View Source

    3242    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3243        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
    3244        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str: View Source

    3246    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3247        args = []
    3248
    3249        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3250            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3251
    3252            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3253                for value in arg_value:
    3254                    args.append(value)
    3255            elif arg_value is not None:
    3256                args.append(arg_value)
    3257
    3258        if self.normalize_functions:
    3259            name = expression.sql_name()
    3260        else:
    3261            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3262
    3263        return self.func(name, *args)

def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str: View Source

    3265    def func(
    3266        self,
    3267        name: str,
    3268        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3269        prefix: str = "(",
    3270        suffix: str = ")",
    3271    ) -> str:
    3272        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"

def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str: View Source

    3274    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3275        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
    3276        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3277            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3278        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)

def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool: View Source

    3280    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3281        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width

def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]: View Source

    3283    def format_time(
    3284        self,
    3285        expression: exp.Expression,
    3286        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3287        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3288    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3289        return format_time(
    3290            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3291            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3292            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3293        )

def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3295    def expressions(
    3296        self,
    3297        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3298        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3299        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3300        flat: bool = False,
    3301        indent: bool = True,
    3302        skip_first: bool = False,
    3303        skip_last: bool = False,
    3304        sep: str = ", ",
    3305        prefix: str = "",
    3306        dynamic: bool = False,
    3307        new_line: bool = False,
    3308    ) -> str:
    3309        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3310
    3311        if not expressions:
    3312            return ""
    3313
    3314        if flat:
    3315            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3316
    3317        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3318
    3319        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
    3320        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
    3321            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
    3322
    3323        result_sqls = []
    3324        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3325            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3326            if not sql:
    3327                continue
    3328
    3329            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3330
    3331            if self.pretty:
    3332                if self.leading_comma:
    3333                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3334                else:
    3335                    result_sqls.append(
    3336                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3337                    )
    3338            else:
    3339                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3340
    3341        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3342            if new_line:
    3343                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3344                result_sqls.append("")
    3345            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
    3346        else:
    3347            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3348        return (
    3349            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3350            if indent
    3351            else result_sql
    3352        )

def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3354    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3355        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3356        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3357        if flat:
    3358            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3359        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"

def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str: View Source

    3361    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3362        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3363        if not property_name:
    3364            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3365        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str: View Source

    3367    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3368        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"

def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str: View Source

    3370    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3371        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)

def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str: View Source

    3373    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3375        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3376        expressions = (
    3377            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3378        )
    3379        return f"{this}{expressions}"

def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str: View Source

    3381    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3383        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3384        return f"{this}({expressions})"

def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str: View Source

    3386    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3387        return self.binary(expression, "=>")

def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str: View Source

    3389    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3390        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3391        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3392        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3393        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3394
    3395        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3396        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3397            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3398            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3399            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3400            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3401        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3402            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3403                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3404            else:
    3405                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3406        else:
    3407            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3408        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"

def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str: View Source

    3410    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3411        table = expression.this
    3412        table_alias = ""
    3413
    3414        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3415        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3416            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3417            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3418
    3419        this = self.sql(table)
    3420        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3421        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3422        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3423        sep = self.sep()
    3424
    3425        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3426            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
    3427        )

def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str: View Source

    3429    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3430        if expression.args.get("format"):
    3431            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
    3432
    3433        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))

def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str: View Source

    3435    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3436        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3437            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3438            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3439
    3440        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3441        if not fmt:
    3442            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3443            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3444
    3445        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)

def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str: View Source

    3447    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3449        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3450        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3451        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3452        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"

def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str: View Source

    3454    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3456        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3457        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3458        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"

def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str: View Source

    3460    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3461        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"

def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str: View Source

    3463    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3464        return ""

def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str: View Source

    3466    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3467        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3468        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3469        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3470        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3471        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"

def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str: View Source

    3473    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3475        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3476
    3477        if having:
    3478            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3479
    3480        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)

def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str: View Source

    3482    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3483        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3484        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3485        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3486        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3487        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3488        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3489        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3490        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3491        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3492        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3493        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3494        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3495        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"

def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str: View Source

    3497    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3498        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3499        if key_block_size:
    3500            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3501
    3502        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3503        if using:
    3504            return f"USING {using}"
    3505
    3506        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3507        if parser:
    3508            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3509
    3510        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3511        if comment:
    3512            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3513
    3514        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3515        if visible is not None:
    3516            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3517
    3518        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3519        if engine_attr:
    3520            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3521
    3522        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3523        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3524            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3525
    3526        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3527        return ""

def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3529    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3530        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3531        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"

def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3533    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3534        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3535        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3537        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3538        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3539        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3540        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3541        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3542        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3543        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3544        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"

def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str: View Source

    3546    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3547        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3548            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3549
    3550        case = exp.Case().when(
    3551            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3552            expression.args["true"],
    3553            copy=False,
    3554        )
    3555        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3556        if else_cond:
    3557            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3558
    3559        return self.sql(case)

def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str: View Source

    3561    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3563        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3564        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3565        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3566        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3567        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"

def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str: View Source

    3569    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3570        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str: View Source

    3572    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3573        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str: View Source

    3575    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3576        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3577        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3578        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3579        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3580        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3581        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)

def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str: View Source

    3583    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3585        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3586        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"

def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str: View Source

    3588    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3590        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3591        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"

def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str: View Source

    3593    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
    3594        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")

def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str: View Source

    3596    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3597        arg = expression.this
    3598        if not arg.type:
    3599            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3600
    3601            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3602
    3603        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3604            return self.sql(arg)
    3605
    3606        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3607        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))

def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str: View Source

    3609    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3610        this = expression.this
    3611        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3612            return self.sql(this)
    3613
    3614        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))

def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str: View Source

    3616    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3617        this = expression.this
    3618        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3619            return self.sql(this)
    3620
    3621        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))

def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str: View Source

    3623    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3624        this = expression.this
    3625        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3626
    3627        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3628            return self.sql(
    3629                exp.cast(
    3630                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3631                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3632                )
    3633            )
    3634
    3635        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3636            return self.sql(this)
    3637
    3638        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))

def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str: View Source

    3640    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3641        return self.sql(
    3642            exp.func(
    3643                "DATEDIFF",
    3644                expression.this,
    3645                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3646                "day",
    3647            )
    3648        )

def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str: View Source

    3650    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3651        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3652            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3653
    3654        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3655        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3656            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3657
    3658        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)

def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str: View Source

    3660    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3661        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3662
    3663        return self.func(
    3664            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3665        )

def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str: View Source

    3667    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3668        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3669            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3670            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3671            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3672            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3673
    3674        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3675
    3676        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3677        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3678            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3679
    3680        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str: View Source

    3682    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
    3683        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
    3684        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str: View Source

    3686    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3687        expression.set(
    3688            "expressions",
    3689            [
    3690                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3691                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3692                else e
    3693                for e in expression.expressions
    3694            ],
    3695        )
    3696
    3697        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str: View Source

    3699    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3700        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3701        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3702
    3703        return f"{low} TO {high}"

def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str: View Source

    3705    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3706        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3707        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3708
    3709        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3710
    3711        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3712        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3713
    3714        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3715        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3716
    3717        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3718        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3719
    3720        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3721        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3722
    3723        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"

def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str: View Source

    3727    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3728        to = expression.this
    3729        value = expression.expression
    3730        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3731        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3732        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3733
    3734        if not to or not value:
    3735            return ""
    3736
    3737        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3738        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3739            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3740
    3741        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3742        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    3743
    3744        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    3745        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    3746            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    3747
    3748            style_value = style.name
    3749            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    3750            if not converted_style:
    3751                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    3752
    3753            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    3754
    3755            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    3756                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    3757            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    3758                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    3759            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3760                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    3761            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    3762                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    3763
    3764        if not transformed:
    3765            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    3766
    3767        return self.sql(transformed)

def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str: View Source

    3823    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    3824        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3825
    3826        if option.upper() == "FILE_FORMAT":
    3827            values = self.expressions(expression, key="expression", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3828            return f"{option} = ({values})"
    3829
    3830        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3831
    3832        if not value:
    3833            return option
    3834
    3835        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    3836
    3837        return f"{option}{op}{value}"

def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str: View Source

    3839    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    3840        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    3841        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    3842            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    3843            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    3844            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    3845        else:
    3846            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    3847            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3848            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
    3849
    3850        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    3851
    3852        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3853        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    3854
    3855        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    3856        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    3857
    3858        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    3859        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    3860
    3861        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"

def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str: View Source

    3863    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    3864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3865        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    3866
    3867        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    3868        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    3869        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    3870        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    3871
    3872        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    3873        params = self.expressions(
    3874            expression,
    3875            key="params",
    3876            sep=sep,
    3877            new_line=True,
    3878            skip_last=True,
    3879            skip_first=True,
    3880            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    3881        )
    3882
    3883        if params:
    3884            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    3885                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    3886            elif not self.pretty:
    3887                params = f" {params}"
    3888
    3889        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"

def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str: View Source

    3891    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    3892        return ""